FORCES OF ATTRACTION

IN MATERIALS
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CHEMICAL BOND

• It is an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence

electrons of an atom and which binds them together.
• A bond results from the attraction of nuclei for electrons
• Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make them
function as a unit.
• A bond will form if the energy of the aggregate is lower than
that of the separated atoms.
• Bond energy – energy required to break a chemical bond
 • All atoms trying to achieve a
stable octet
• Octet rule – the valence s and p
orbitals of an atom has eight
electrons
• IN OTHER WORDS
• the p+ in one nucleus are
attracted to the e- of another
atom
• Electronegativity
• Octet Rule =
atoms tend to
gain, lose or
share electrons
so as to have 8
electrons

✓C would like to Gain 4 electrons

✓N would like to Gain 3 electrons
✓O would like to Gain 2 electrons
• Three types of chemical bonds may exist in substances:
1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
3. Metallic bonds
IONIC BONDING
• forms ionic compounds
• Ionic compound results when a metal reacts with a nonmetal.
• bond formed between two ions by the transfer of electrons
• Metals lose electrons to match the number of valence electrons
of their nearest noble gas
• Positive ions form when the number of electrons are less than
the number of protons
Group 1 metals ⎯→ ion 1+
Group 2 metals ⎯→ ion 2+
Group 13 metals ⎯→ ion 3+
IONIC BONDING

• electrons are transferred between valence shells

of atoms
• ionic compounds are made of ions NOT MOLECULES

• ionic compounds are called Salts or Crystals

• Always formed between metals and non-metals

[METALS ]
+ [NON-METALS ]
-

Lost e- Gained e-
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• hard solid @ 22oC SALTS

• high mp temperatures Crystals

• nonconductors of electricity in solid

phase
• good conductors in liquid phase or
dissolved in water (aq)
IONIC BONDING
• Electronegativity is the measure of the tendency
of an atom to attract electrons toward itself.
• Electronegativity difference > 2.0
• Look up electron negativity of the atoms in
the bond and subtract
NaCl
CaCl2
• Compounds with polyatomic ions
NaNO3
Ionic Bonds: One Big Greedy Thief Dog!
Anion (-) Cation (+)
Ionic bond – electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a
charge imbalance in each atom. The Na becomes (Na+) and the
Cl becomes (Cl-), charged particles or ions.
IONIC BOND, A SEA OF ELECTRONS
 COVALENT BONDING
molecules
• A covalent bond results when electrons are shared
by nuclei.
• Pairs of e- are shared between non-metal atoms
• electronegativity difference < 2.0
• forms polyatomic ions
• Between nonmetallic elements of similar
electronegativity.
• Formed by sharing electron pairs
• Stable non-ionizing particles, they are not
conductors at any state
• Examples; O2, CO2, C2H6, H2O, SiC
PROPERTIES OF MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES
Covalent
bonding
• Low m.p. temp and b.p. temps
• relatively soft solids as compared to ionic
compounds
• nonconductors of electricity in any phase
• Bonds in all the polyatomic ions and diatomics are
all covalent bonds
NONPOLAR COVALENT BONDS

• It a bond in which
electrons are
equally shared by
the bonded atoms.
Covalent bonds - Two atoms share one
or more pairs of outer-shell electrons.
Oxygen Atom Oxygen Atom

Oxygen Molecule (O2)

POLAR COVALENT BOND
• Unequal sharing of electrons
between atoms in a molecule.
• One atom attracts the electrons
more than the other atom.
• Results in a charge separation in
the bond (partial positive and
partial negative charge).
• The two partially charged regions
or poles of a molecule are
referred to as a dipole.
Polar Covalent Bonds: Unevenly matched, but willing to share.
Water is a polar molecule because oxygen is more electronegative
than hydrogen, and therefore electrons are pulled closer to oxygen.
 METALLIC BOND
• bond found in metals;
• holds metal atoms together very
strongly
• Formed between atoms of metallic
elements
• Electron cloud around atoms
• Good conductors at all states,
lustrous, very high melting points
• Examples; Na, Fe, Al, Au, Co
Metallic Bonds: Mellow dogs with plenty
of bones to go around.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• The ability of an atom in a

molecule to attract shared
electrons to itself.
• For a molecule HX, the relative
electronegativities of the H and
X atoms are determined by
comparing the measured H–X
bond energy with the
“expected” H–X bond energy.
• On the periodic table,
electronegativity
generally increases
across a period and
decreases down a
group.
• The range of
electronegativity values
is from 4.0 for fluorine
(the most
electronegative) to 0.7
for cesium and
francium (the least
electronegative).
• The absolute value of the
electronegativity difference Electronegativity
(ΔEN) between the two given Type of Bond Difference
atoms gives an idea of the type
of chemical bond that can exist
between them. Ionic ΔEN ≥ 2.0
• Ionic bond result when there is
a very large difference between Polar Covalent 0.5 < ΔEN < 2.0
the electronegativity values of
each atom, resulting to a polar Nonpolar
0 ≤ ΔEN ≤ 0.5
bond. Covalent
 Electronegativity
Type of Bond Difference • Polar covalent bond exist
between the atoms with
high ΔEN value, but
Ionic ΔEN ≥ 2.0 smaller than that in ionic
bonds.
Polar Covalent 0.5 < ΔEN < 2.0 • Nonpolar covalent bonds
have the least
Nonpolar electronegativity
0 < ΔEN ≤ 0.5
Covalent difference among the
three types of bonds.