The Skeletal System  

a compact bone that is typically longer than they are

wide, have a shaft with heads at both ends

-long bones

Ex.
2 division of skeleton
bones of the limbs except the patella (kneecap)
1. Axial wrist and ankle bones
2. Appendicular
generally cube-shaped and contain mostly spongy
the bones that form the longitudinal axis of the body bone
- Axial -short bones
The bones of the limbs and girdles Ex.
-appendicular wrist and ankle wrist and ankle
Skeletal system inc. joints, cartilages, and ligaments form within tendons, are a special type of short bone,
example is patella
fibrous cords that bind the bones together at joints
-sesamoid (part of short bone)
- ligaments
 A bone that is thin, flattened, and usually curved
give the body flexibility and allow movement to occur.
-joints -flat bone

Functions of the Bones (read ) A bone that have two thin layers of compact bone
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between them
 support
-flat bone
 protection
Ex.
movement
skull ribs sternum (breastbone)
storage
Bones that do not fit one of the preceding categories 
blood cell formation
-irregular bones
Classification of Bones
The vertebrae, which make up the spinal column, and
adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones the hip bones fall into this group.
2 types of bones -irregular bone
1.compact bone

2.spongy bone Structure of a Long Bone

is dense and looks smooth and homogeneous
-Compact bone 
is composed of small needlelike pieces of bone and
lots of open space.
-Spongy bone
 Bones are classified according to shape;
Gross Anatomy
It makes up most of the bone’s length and is
composed of compact bone
-diaphysis
The diaphysis is covered and protected by a fibrous
connective tissue membrane called what

long short flat irregular -periosteum/shaft

A connective tissue fibers which secure the

periosteum to the underlying bone.
-perforating/ sharpey’s fibers 2 categories of bone markings

1.projections/processes

2.depression/cavities

A type of bone markings which grow out from the

bone surface

- projections/processes

A type of bone markings which are indentations in the

bone

- depression/cavities
 the external surface of the diaphysis is covered by
a periosteum, but the articular surface of the
epiphysis is covered with hyaline cartilage

the ends of the long bone, consists of a thin layer of

compact bone enclosing an area filled with spongy
bone

-epiphyses

covers its external surface of epiphyses

-articular cartilage

glassy hyaline cartilage, that provides a smooth,

slippery surface that decreases friction at joint
surfaces.

-articular cartilage

a remnant of the epiphyseal plate, a thin line of bony

tissue spanning the epiphysis 

-epiphyseal line

 the cavity of the shaft is primarily a storage area for

adipose (fat) tissue

-yellow marrow/medullary cavity

in infants this area forms blood cells, and red

marrow is found there(cavity of shaft that is storage
area)

in adult bones, red marrow is confined to cavities in

the spongy bone of flat bones and the epiphyses of
some long bones.

 A bone that is not smooth but scarred with bumps,
holes, and ridges.
-bone markings
This isl where muscles, tendons, and ligaments were
attached and where blood vessels and nerves passed
 There is a little trick for remembering some of the
bone markings listed in the table: All the terms
beginning with T are projections. The terms beginning
with F (except facet) are depressions.
___________________________________________

-bone marking
Microscopic Anatomy
  spongy bone has a spiky, open appearance,
whereas compact bone appears to be very dense.
It is riddled with passageways carrying nerves, blood
vessels, and the like, which provide the living bone
cells with nutrients and a route for waste disposal
-compact bone
A mature bone cells that is found within the matrix in
tiny cavities called lacunae  skeleton
-osteocytes
 The lacunae are arranged in concentric circles
called lamellae around central (Haversian) canals
 Each complex consisting of central canal and matrix
rings is called
-osteon/haversian system
A Tiny canals that  radiate outward from the central
canals to all lacunae
-canaliculi
It form a transportation system that connects all the
bone cells to the nutrient supply through the hard
bone matrix
-canaliculi
 The communication pathway from the outside of
the bone to its interior (and the central canals) is
completed by perforating (Volkmann’s)
canals, which run into the compact bone at right
angles to the shaft.
deposited in the matrix give bone its hardness, which
resists compression. 
-calcium salts
one of the hardest materials in the body that has a
remarkable ability to resist tension and other forces
acting on it
-bones
2 strongest and most supportive tissues in the body in
1.cartilage
2.bone
 skeleton is primarily made of hyaline cartilage, but
in the young child most of the cartilage has been
replaced by bone
Areas of cartilage;
nose, ribs,joints
2 phases of ossification
is completely covered with bone matrix (a bone
“collar”) by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts.
-hyaline cartilage model
By birth or shortly after, most hyaline cartilage
models have been converted to bone except for two
regions–the articular cartilages (that cover the bone
ends) and the epiphyseal plates.
A process by which bones increase in diameter
-appositional growth
Bones are remodeled continually in response to
changes in two factors
(1) calcium levels in the blood and
(2) the pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton.
How these factors influence bones is outlined next.
 When blood calcium levels drop below homeostatic
levels, the parathyroid glands (located in the throat)
are stimulated to release parathyroid hormone (PTH)
into the blood
a giant bone-destroying cells in bones, to break down
bone matrix and release calcium ions into the
blood(PTH activates it)
-osteoclast
When blood calcium levels are too high
(hypercalcemia [hi″per-kal-se′me-ah]), calcium is
deposited in bone matrix as hard calcium salts.
 It is essential if bones are to retain normal The realignment of the broken bone ends
proportions and strength during long-bone growth as
the body increases in size and weight -reduction

-bone remodeling the bone ends are coaxed back into their normal
position by the physician’s hands.
osteoblasts lay down new matrix and become
trapped within it. (Once they are trapped, they -closed reduction
become osteocytes, or mature bone cells.)
 surgery is performed and the bone ends are secured
It determines when (or if ) bone is to be broken down together with pins or wires.
or formed in response to the need for more or fewer
-open reduction
calcium ions in the blood
 The healing time for a simple fracture is 6 to 8
-PTH
weeks
a disease of children in which the bones fail to calcify
4 major events of repairing of bone farctures
-rickets
1.a hematoma forms
A disease due to a lack of calcium in the diet or lack of
Hematoma- a blood-filled swelling 
vitamin D, which is needed to absorb calcium into the
bloodstream 2.the break is splinted by a fibrocartilage callus
-rickets Fibrocartilage callus -acts to “splint” the broken
bone, closing the gap.
Bone Fractures
3.the bony callus forms
A type of fracture which the bone breaks cleanly but 4.bone remodeling occurs
does not penetrate the skin is a closed 

-simple fracture

When the broken bone ends penetrate through the

Axial Skeleton
skin, the fracture

-compound fracture A type of skeleton that  forms the longitudinal axis of

the body

-axial skeleton

3 parts of axial skeleton

1.skull

2.vertebral column

3.bony thorax

A fracture is treated by reduction

  a sharp, needlelike projection, is just inferior to the
it is formed by two sets of bones external auditory meatus. 

-skull - styloid process

It is a thin bridge of bone that joins with the

 encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue.
cheekbone anteriorly.
-cranium - zygomatic process
It hold the eyes in an anterior position and allow the It has a full of air cavities , is a rough projection
facial muscles to show our feelings through smiles or posterior and inferior to the external acoustic meatus
frowns.
-mastoid process
-facial bones
It provides an attachment site for some muscles of the
Cranium neck

The boxlike cranium is composed of eight large flat - mastoid process

bones. Except for two paired bones (the parietal and
temporal), they are all single bones.
Frontal Bone (0range)   
The frontal bone forms the forehead, the bony
projections under the eyebrows, and the superior part
of each eye’s orbit
at the junction of the occipital and temporal bones,
allows passage of the jugular vein, the largest vein of
the head, which drains the brain.
-jugular foramen
Just anterior to it in the cranial cavity is the internal
acoustic meatus

Parietal Bones (green) It transmits cranial nerves VII and VIII (the facial and
vestibulocochlear nerves)
The paired parietal bones form most of the superior
and lateral walls of the cranium.They meet in the - internal acoustic meatus
midline of the skull at the sagittal suture and form
the coronal suture, where they meet the frontal  Anterior to the jugular foramen on the skull’s inferior
bone. aspect is the carotid canal 

Temporal Bones (dark orange) the internal carotid artery runs, supplying blood to
most of the brain.
the temporal bones lie inferior to the parietal bones;
they join them at the squamous sutures. Several - carotid canal 
important bone markings appear on the temporal
Figure: Human skull, superior view
bone

It is a canal that leads to the eardrum and the middle

ear. It is the route by which sound enters the ear

-external acoustic meatus

Figure: Human skull, inferior view
Occipital Bone
occipital bone is the most posterior bone of the
cranium. It forms the floor and back wall of the skull.
The occipital bone joins the parietal bones anteriorly
at the lambdoid suture. In the base of the occipital
bone is a large opening, the foramen
magnum (literally, “large hole”). The foramen
magnum surrounds the lower part of the brain and
allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain.
Lateral to the foramen magnum on each side are the
rockerlike occipital condyles which rest on the first
vertebra of the spinal
Sphenoid Bone
the butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width
of the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial
cavity. In the midline of the sphenoid is a small
depression, the sella turcica , or Turk’s saddle, which
forms a snug enclosure for the pituitary gland.
The foramen ovale, a large oval opening in line with
the posterior end of the sella turcica allows fibers of
cranial nerve V (the trigeminal nerve) to pass to the
chewing muscles of the lower jaw (mandible). Parts of
the sphenoid bone, seen exteriorly forming part of the
eye orbits, have two important openings, the optic
canal, which allows the optic nerve to pass to the eye,
and the slitlike superior orbital fissure, through
which the cranial nerves controlling eye movements
(III, IV, and VI) pass The central part of the sphenoid
bone is riddled with air cavities, the sphenoid
sinuses
What bone articulates with every other facial bone?
-maxilla
  Ethmoid Bone    
a very irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the
sphenoid 
 forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the
medial walls of the orbits
 cribriform plates - Allow nerve fibers carrying
impulses from the olfactory (smell) receptors of the
nose to reach the brain.
 Projecting from its superior surface is the crista
galli literally “cock’s comb” .The outermost covering of
the brain attaches to this projection. On each side of
the crista galli are many small holes. These holey
areas, the cribriform  plates, allow nerve fibers
carrying impulses from the olfactory (smell) receptors
of the nose to reach the brain. Extensions of the
ethmoid bone, the superior and middle nasal
conchae (form part of the lateral walls of the nasal
cavity and increase the turbulence of air flowing
through the nasal passages.
14 bones compose the face, 12 are paired, only
mandible and vomer are single
Maxillae 
 the main, or “keystone,” bones of the face.
cont. sinuses
 palatine- Extensions of the maxillae that form the
anterior part of the hard palate of the mouth 
 paranasal tissues -surrounding the nasal cavity,
lighten the skull bones and amplify the sounds we
make as we speak. 
They form the posterior part of the hard palate
-palatine bone
referred to as the cheekbones, it  form a good-sized
portion of the lateral walls of the orbits, or eye
sockets.
-zygomatic bones
fingernail-sized bones forming part of the medial walls
of each orbit. 
-lacrimal bone
 The small rectangular bones forming the bridge of
the nose are the nasal bones.
-nasal bones
The single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity
  Before birth, the spine consists of 33 separate
is the vomer
bones called vertebrae, 9 of these eventually fuse to
-vomer form the two composite bones, the sacrum and
the coccyx, that construct the inferior portion of the
It forms most of the bony nasal septum. vertebral column. Of the 24 single bones, the 7
vertebrae of the neck are cervical vertebrae, the next
-vomer 12 are the thoracic vertebrae, and the remaining 5
are thin, curved bones projecting medially from the supporting the lower back are lumbar vertebrae.
lateral walls of the nasal cavity cushion the vertebrae and absorb shocks while
-inferior nasal conchae allowing the spine flexibility

It joins the temporal bones on each side of the face, -intervertebral discs
forming the only freely movable joints in the skull. 
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
-mandible
3 types of abnormal spinal curvatures
the largest and strongest bone of the face
1.scoliosis
-mandible
2.kyphosis
it is the only bone of the body that does not articulate
directly with any other bone 3.lordosis

-hyoid bone

serves as a movable base for the tongue and as an

attachment point for neck muscles that raise and
lower the larynx when we swallow and speak.

-hyoid bone

FETUS SKULL

The fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones

 common features of vertebrae :
-Fontanels
 Body or centrum Vertebral arch
 The largest fontanel is the diamond-
shaped anterior fontane Vertebral foramen Transverse processes

 Spinous process Superior

Vertebral Column (Spine)
 inferior articular processes

disclike, weight-bearing part of the vertebra facing

Serving as the axial support of the body that extends anteriorly in the vertebral column.
from the skull, which it supports, to the pelvis, where it
transmits the weight of the body to the lower limbs. -Body or centrum

-vertebral column/spine arch formed from the joining of all posterior

extensions, the laminae and pedicles, from the
 spine is formed from 26 irregular bones  vertebral body.

-Vertebral arch

canal through which the spinal cord passes.

-Vertebral foramen

two lateral projections from the vertebral arch.

-Transverse processes
single projection arising from the posterior aspect of
the vertebral arch (actually the fused laminae).
-Spinous process
paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen,
allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent
veformed by the fusion of five vertebraertebrae
-Superior and inferior articular processes
Lumbar Vertebrae
 The five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) have
massive, blocklike bodies. Their short, hatchet-
shaped spinous processes (Figure 5.18d) make them
look like a moose head from the lateral aspect.
Sacrum
formed by the fusion of five vertebrae

 Superiorly it articulates with L5, and inferiorly it

Cervical Vertebrae
  (identified as C1 to C7) form the neck region of the
spine. The first two vertebrae (atlas and axis) are
different because they perform functions not shared
by the other cervical vertebrae.  processes of the sacral vertebrae. This is flanked
has no body
-atlas
acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and skull)
above
-axis
It has a large upright process, the dens, which acts as
the pivot point. 
-axis
 he joint between C1 and C2 allows you to rotate
your head from side to side to indicate “no.”
connects with the coccyx. The winglike alae articulate
laterally with the hip bones, forming the sacroiliac
joints. The sacrum forms the posterior wall of the
pelvis. Its posterior midline surface is roughened by
the median sacral crest, the fused spinous
laterally by the posterior sacral foramina. The
vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as
the sacral canal and terminates in a large inferior
opening called the sacral hiatus.
It is formed from the fusion of three to five tiny,
irregularly shaped vertebrae
-coccyx
It is the human “tailbone,” a remnant of the tail that
other vertebrate animals have.
-coccyx
It make up the bony thorax.
-sternum & thoracic

It is routinely called the thoracic cage because it

They are the smallest, lightest vertebrae, and most forms a protective, cone-shaped cage of slender
often their spinous processes are short and divided bones around the organs of the thoracic cavity (heart,
into two branches.  lungs, and major blood vessels)
-The “typical” cervical vertebrae (C3 through C7 -bony thorax
the vertebral arteries pass on their way to the brain
above.

-foramina/openings

Thoracic Vertebrae

 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) are all typical

It is long and hooks sharply downward, causing the

vertebra to look like a giraffe’s head viewed from the
side.

-spinous process
It  is a typical flat bone and the result of the fusion of -appendicular skeleton
three bones- manubrium, body, xiphoid process
2 bones of shoulder girdle/pectoral girdle
-sternum
1.clavicle
3 important bony landmark of sternum
2.scapula
1. Jugular notch
2. Sternal angle a slender, doubly curved bone, attached to
3. Xiphisternal joint sternum(medially) & scapula(laterally) which help to
form shoulder joint
(concave upper border of the manubrium) can be
palpated easily; generally it is at the level of the third -clavicle /collarbone
thoracic vertebra
It acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the top of
-jugular notch the thorax and helps prevent shoulder dislocation.

 It provides a handy reference point for counting ribs - clavicle /collarbone

to locate the second intercostal space for listening to
It is called “wings” and it is not directly attached to the
certain heart valves.
axial skeleton; it is loosely held in place by trunk
-sternal angle muscles.

the point where the sternal body and xiphoid process -scapulae/scapula
fuse, lies at the level of the ninth thoracic vertebra.
2 important process of flattened body in scapula
-xiphisternal joint
1.acromion- the enlarged end of the spine of the
A needle is inserted into the marrow of the sternum, scapula
and the sample is withdrawn
2.coracoid process- beaklike
-sternal puncture
 It connects with the clavicle laterally at
___________________________________________ the acromioclavicular joint

-acromion
RIBS serves as a nerve passageway in coracoid process
 the first seven pairs, attach directly to the sternum by - suprascapular notch
costal cartilages.
3 angles of scapula
-true ribs
-superior,medial and lateral
the next five pairs, either attach indirectly to the
sternum or are not attached to the sternum at all  a shallow socket that receives the head of the arm
bone, is in the lateral angle
-false ribs
-glenoid cavity
The last two pairs of false ribs lack the sternal
attachments
Bones of the Upper Limbs
-floating ribs

 The intercostal spaces (spaces between the ribs)

are filled with the intercostal muscles that aid in Arm
breathing.
the midpoint of the shaft is a roughened area, where
Appendicular Skeleton the large, fleshy deltoid muscle of the shoulder
attaches
It is composed of 126 bones of the limbs
(appendages) and the pectoral and pelvic girdles,
which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.-