WAVES

an oscillation or vibration that transfers

Wave
energy without transferring matter

oscillations are perpendicular to the

Transverse Waves direction of energy transfer
Eg. light waves, water waves

oscillations are parallel to the direction of

Longitudinal Waves energy transfer
Eg. sound waves, slinky spring

Amplitude maximum displacement of a point on a

wave away from its undisturbed position

distance from a point on one wave to the

Wavelength (λ)
equivalent point on the adjacent wave

number of waves passing a point each

Frequency (f) second, measured in Hertz (Hz), where 1Hz
= 1 wave per second

how long it takes for one complete wave to

Period (T)
pass a point (measured in seconds)

Wave equation: v=fλ

Frequency and time period: f=1/T

WAVE EXPERIMENTS
Speed of Sound:
● Signal generator to a speaker can generate sounds with a specific frequency
● Two microscopes and an oscilloscope to find the wavelength of the waves generated
○ Oscilloscope - set so each microphone is a separate wave
○ Both start next to speaker
○ Move one away until waves are aligned, but exactly one wavelength apart
 ○ Distance between = 1λ
○ v=fλ to find speed of sound waves passing through the air
■ Frequency is whatever the signal generator was originally set to
(~2kHz is sensible)
○ Speed of sound is 330 m/s - results should roughly agree
Speed of Water Ripples:
● Signal generator attached to a dipper of a
ripple tank creates waves at a set frequency
● Strobe light helps see wave crests on a screen
below the tank
● When frequency of strobe light and wave are
equal, pattern appears to freeze
○ Moved exactly one wavelength forward
so it looks the same
● Distance between each shadow line is equal to 1 wavelength
○ Distance between shadow lines 10 wavelengths apart / 10 = average
wavelength (more accurate)
● v=fλ to find speed of the waves
Wave Equation for Waves on Strings:
● Signal generator and vibration transducer
cause the string to vibrate
● Adjust frequency of signal generator until
there’s a clear wave
○ Depends on length of string between
pulley and transducer and the
masses used
● Measure wavelengths
○ Find average of multiple - more accurate
● Frequency is what signal generator is set to
● v=fλ to find speed of the waves

SOUND WAVES
● Carried by particles vibrating
○ Series of compressions and rarefactions creates a sound wave which travels
through the air to your ear
○ Air particles themselves don’t move
● Longitudinal waves
● Travel in solids, liquids and gases
○ Fastest in solids - vibrations are more easily passed from particle to particle
○ Impossible for sound to travel through vacuum as particles are required
■ No vibrating particles = no sound
● Echo - sound wave reflected back from surface
○ Reduced using soft surfaces - absorb sound waves
 ● Lighting and Thunder
○ Sound travels at ~340m/s in air
○ Light travels at ~300,000,000m/s
○ ∴ we see lightning before we hear thunder

HEARING SOUND
● Sound waves that reach your eardrum can cause it
to vibrate
● Vibrations are passed to tiny bones in your ear called
ossicles, through the semicircular canals and to the
cochlea
● Cochlea turns vibrations into electrical signals - sent
to brain and allow you to sense (hear the sound)
● Different materials can convert different frequencies
of sound waves into vibrations
○ Humans can hear sound in the range 20Hz-
20kHz
○ Microphones pick up sound waves outside
this range - we wouldn’t hear
● Human hearing is limited by the size and shape of
our eardrum
○ As well as structure of all the parts within the ear that vibrate to transfer
energy from the sound wave

ULTRASOUND
● Frequencies above 20,000Hz (above human hearing)
● Partial reflection
○ When passing from one medium to another, some of the wave is reflected off
the boundary between the two media
○ Some is transmitted (and refracted)
● A burst of ultrasound is sent out
● It is partially reflected from a boundary between two media (different densities)
● Reflected signal is detected and the time delay is measured
○ Can be used to find the distance to the boundary (velocity = speed x time)
and an image is built up
Uses:
● Medical
○ Safe, non-invasive imaging (eg prenatal scanning)
○ Treating kidney stones (vibrations break down stones)
● Other uses
○ Industry - detecting defects (eg railway cracks)
■ Usually reflected by the far side
■ If there is a flaw such as a crack inside the object, the wave will be
reflected sooner
○ Sonar - used by ships looking for shoals for fish
EXPLORING STRUCTURES USING WAVES
● Waves have different properties depending on the material they’re travelling through
● Upon arriving at boundary between materials
○ Completely reflected
○ Partially reflected
○ Continue in same direction at different speed
○ Refracted
○ Absorbed
● Studying paths of waves through structures can give you clues of the properties of
the structure that you can’t see by eye

SEISMIC WAVES
● Earthquakes produce seismic waves which travel through the Earth
○ Seismometers detect these waves
● Seismologists work out the time it takes to for the shock waves to reach each
seismometers and which parts of the Earth don’t receive the shock waves at all
● When seismic waves reach a boundary between different layers of a material (w/
different properties) inside the Earth, some waves will be absorbed and some will be
refracted
● Most of the time, If waves are refracted, they change speed gradually, resulting in a
curved path
● If properties change suddenly, wave speeds change abruptly and the path as a kink

● Two different types of seismic waves

○ P waves
○ S waves
P Waves S Waves

Longitudinal Transverse

Travel through solids and liquids Only travel through solids, not liquids (or gas)

Faster than S waves Slower than P waves

● P waves are detected on opposite side of the Earth, but S waves aren’t
○ ∴ Earth has a liquid core

OSCILLOSCOPES
● An oscilloscope trace shows the displacement of one particle over time
● Amplitude
○ Small = Quiet
○ Big = Loud
● Frequency
○ High Frequency = High Pitch
○ Low Frequency = Low Pitch

DOPPLER EFFECT
 ● When an object emitting a sound moves towards you the wave fronts become
bunched up and frequency (pitch) of the wave increases
● As it moves away, the frequency decreases

REFRACTION
● Refraction - when a wave crosses a boundary at an angle it changes angle
● Amount refracted depends on speed of wave, which usually depends on density of
the two materials (usually higher density = slower waves)
○ Wave slows down across boundary → bends towards the normal
○ Wave become faster across boundary → bends away from the normal
● When refracted
○ Wavelength changes
○ Frequency stays the same
● If the wave is travelling along the normal, it will change speed, but it’s not refracted
● Optimal density of a material - how quickly light can travel through it
○ Higher optimal density = slower light waves travel through it

Triangular prism splits up white light (mixture of all colours, ie all wavelengths) into
different colours - dispersion
● Light waves are refracted as they enter and leave the prism
○ Shorter wavelength = more refracted
○ ∴ red light is refracted the least and violet is reflected the most
○ Spectrum is formed

● When light hits an object it can be:

○ Reflected (bounces off)
○ Transmitted (passes through)
○ Absorbed (into the material)

REFLECTION
● Specular Reflection
○ Light reflects from mirrors or smooth polished surfaces at a predictable ange
(angle of incidence = angle of reflection)
 ● Diffuse Reflection
○ Light is reflected from a rough surface at random angles

COLOUR
● We only see the visible light spectrum - a range of wavelengths we perceive as
different colours
● Each colour has its own range of wavelength
○ Violet - 400nm to
○ Red - 700nm
● Colours can mix together to make other colours (except primary colours)
○ All together = white light

● Transparent or translucent - most of the light is transmitted by an object

● Opaque - no light transmitted
○ All reflected or absorbed
● Colour of an object depends on which wavelengths of light are most strongly
reflected
○ eg white light on red object (primary)
■ White light is a mixture of all colours
■ When it hits a red object, only the red light is reflected
■ All the other colours (wavelengths) are absorbed
○ eg white light on yellow object (secondary)
■ Looks yellow because reflecting yellow light OR
■ Looks yellow because reflecting red and green light
■ ∴ wavelengths of primary colours can mix together to make a colour
○ Black objects absorb most of the light of all wavelengths
○ White objects reflect most of the light of all wavelengths
● Objects in different colours of light
○ Blue light on red object
■ All absorbed → object appears black (no light is reflected = appears black)
○ Blue light on white object
■ Blue reflected → appears blue

COLOUR FILTERS
● Filter out different wavelengths of light, only certain wavelengths (colours) are
transmitted - rest are absorbed
● Primary colour filter only transmits that colour
○ White light through blue filter → blue light let through, rest absorbed
○ White light through blue filter on non-blue object → appears black
■ All of the light that would be reflected is absorbed
● Filters of non-primary colours transmit wavelengths of light for that colour and
wavelengths of primary colours that can be added together to make that colour
 LENSES
● Real Image - where rays of light from the object cross - can be seen on screen
● Virtual Image - where rays appear to have come from, find their position where the
virtual rays cross - cannot be seen on a screen
● Focal Point - point at which parallel rays converge

CONVEX LENSES

● Converging - converges/brings in light rays

● Used in projectors, cameras, some spectacles and magnifying glasses

1. Dra
w a ray straight through the centre of the lens
2. Draw a second ray parallel to the axis until it reaches the lens. It then passes through
the principal focus
The image is formed where the rays cross
Object Distance Characteristics Uses

u>2f real, diminished, inverted eye, cameras

u=2f real, same size, inverted -

f<u<2f real, magnified, inverted projector

u<f virtual, magnified, upright magnifying glass

● ‘Fat’ lenses have short focal lengths, while ‘thin’ lenses have long focal lengths
CONCAVE LENS

● Diverging - diverges/spreads out rays

● All images from a concave lens

○ Virtual
○ Diminished
○ Upright

POWER OF A LENS
● Power of a lens is the inverse of the focal length (in metres)
○ P=1/f (in m)
○ Unit for lens power is dioptre (D)
■ D=m-1
● A convex lens has a +ve power (and a +ve focal length)
● A concave lens has a -ve power (and a -ve focal length)
● Factors affecting the power of the lens
○ Material from which it is made
○ The curvature of the surfaces (thickness of the
lens)

THE EYE
● Ciliary muscles relax → stretch the lens → lens thinner → eye focus on distant object
● Ciliary muscles contract→ squeeze the lens → lens thicker→ focus on near object

● Range of vision of the normal eye is 25cm to ∞

● Near point is 25cm - Far point is ∞
 Eye Camera

Type of Lens variable focus fixed focus

converging lens converging lens

Focussing Adjustment ciliary muscle alters

adjustment of lens position
changes thickness

Image real, inverted, diminished real, inverted, diminished

Image Detection photographic film (or CD

light sensitive cells on retina
sensors in digital cameras)

Brightness Control iris controls the width of the

adjustment of aperture ‘stop’
pupil

Short Sighted
● Cannot focus on distant object
○ Light rays focus short of the retina
○ Eyeball is too big or the lens cannot become thin enough to focus
● Concave lens - allows the light from distant object to focus correctly on the retina
Long Sighted
● Cannot focus on near object
○ Light rays focus behind the retina
○ Eyeball is too small or the ciliary muscles cannot make the lens thick enough
to focus
● Convex lens - allows the light from nearby object to focus correctly on the retina

INFRARED RADIATION
● Black matt surfaces are good absorbers of i.r. radiation (like visible light). Black matt
surfaces are also best emitters of i.r.
● Pale shiny surfaces are poor absorbers and emitters of i.r. They are also good
reflectors
Infrared Radiation Experiments:
● Leslie’s Cube:
○ Cube with four different coloured surfaces, filled with boiling water
○ Use an i.r. thermometer to measure the radiation coming from each surface
● Matt Black and Shiny Test Tubes:
○ Small amount of water and a thermometer in a test tube
○ Place the test tubes near a radiant heater
○ Compare the temperature rise of the water in each tube
BLACK BODY RADIATION
● Perfect black body is an object that absorbs all wavelengths of radiation incident
upon it
○ Black bodies are also good emitters of all wavelengths
● An object at constant temperature is absorbing and emitting radiation at the same
rate (in equilibrium)
● The hotter an object is, the more radiation it emits and the higher the peak
wavelength

EARTH’S TEMPERATURE
● Overall temperature of the Earth depends on the amount of radiation it reflects,
absorbs and emits
● During the day, lots of radiation (like light) is transferred to the Earth from the Sun
and absorbed
○ ∴ increase in local temperature
● At night, less radiation is being absorbed than is being emitted, causing a decrease
in local temperature
● Overall, the temperature of the Earth stays fairly constant

● Changes to the atmosphere can cause a change to the Earth’s overall temperature
○ Atmosphere starts to absorb more radiation without emitting the same amount →
overall temperature will rise until absorption and emission are equal again (global
warming)
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

EM WAVES
● All EM waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from a source to an
absorber (eg a hot object transfers energy by emitting i.r. which is absorbed by
surrounding air)
● All EM waves travel at the same speed through air or a vacuum (space)
● All EM waves can be reflected/refracted/defracted
● Continuous spectrum - grouped into seven basic types, based on λ and frequency
● Large range of frequencies - EM waves are generated by a variety of changes in
atoms and their nuclei
○ Changes in the nucleus of an atom creates gamma rays
○ ∴ atoms can absorb a range of frequencies - each one causes a different change
● Different properties - different purposes

RADIO
● Longest wavelength - 1m-100m
● Lowest frequency
● Made by various types of transmitter, depending on the wavelength
● Also given off by stars, spark and lightning
● Uses:
○ Used mainly for communication such as radio stations
○ Also used for television transmissions and military aircraft radios
○ TV and Radio
● Dangers:
○ Large doses can cause cancer, leukaemia and other disorders
○ No serious, major dangers
MICROWAVE
● λ = 1cm - 1m
● Uses:
○ Cause water and fat molecules to vibrate, which makes things hotter. Thus
microwaves can be used to cook food
○ Mobile phone (microwaves can be generated by a small antenna)
○ WiFi
○ Fixed traffic speed cameras and radar
○ Mobile phones, satellite TV
● Dangers:
○ ‘Cataracts’ - clouding of eye lens
○ Microwaves from your phone may affect parts of your brain
○ Heating body tissue

INFRARED
● λ = 700nm - 1mm
● Uses:
○ Remote controls
○ Heat lamps can be used to heal sports injuries
○ Short-range communications (mobile)
○ All objects give off i.r. waves ∴ they can be used to ‘see in the dark’
○ Passive infrared detectors are used in alarm system
○ Thermal imaging cameras
● Dangers:
○ Overheating
○ Skin burn

VISIBLE
● λ = 390nm - 700nm
● Uses:
○ Allow us to see things the way we do (visible light rays from the sun)
○ Lasers (printers or aircraft weapon aiming systems)
○ Compact disc and DVD players
○ Photography
● Dangers:
○ Too much light can damage the retina in your eyes
○ Skin Damage
ULTRAVIOLET
● λ = 10 - 400nm
● Uses:
○ Sun tan
○ Detecting forged bank notes
○ Hardening types of dental filling
○ UV rays can be used to kill microbes or sterilise products
○ Suitable UV rays can cause the body to produce vitamin D
○ Security marking
● Dangers:
○ Large doses damage the retina in your eyes ( → blindness)
○ Sunburn or potentially skin cancer

X-RAY
● λ = 0.01nm - 10nm
● Uses:
○ See inside people’s bodies as they easily pass through soft tissues but not
through hard bone - Medical Imaging
○ Airport security - check inside luggage
○ Astronomers use them to spot things in the universe that emit X-Rays
● Dangers:
○ Can cause cell damage and cancer
GAMMA
● λ = >10 picometres
● Uses:
○ Kill cancer cells
○ Tracers inside the body
○ Sterilise
■ food
■ medical equipment
● Dangers:
○ Cause cell damage and can cause a variety of cancers
○ Cause mutations in growing tissues