Synoptic and Prognostic Charts

MERCHANT MARINE ACADEMY OF
CARAGA, INC.
METEOROLOGY &
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
TOPIC # 1
Synoptic and Prognostic Charts and
Forecasts From Any Source
INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B. BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY & OCEANOGRAPHY 2

COURSE CODE / DESCRIPTIVE TITLE:
METEOROLOGY & OCEANOGRAPHY
2
• Function: A-II/2 Navigation at the Management Level
• STCW’78 Competences: A-II/2.F1.C8. Forecast weather and
oceanographic conditions
• KUP/s A-II/2 F1 C8 KUP1: Ability to understand and interpret a synoptic
chart and to forecast area weather, taking into account local weather
conditions and information received by weather fax
• Course Outcomes:
• At the end of the course, students should be able to:
• C01. Interpret area weather using a synoptic chart, taking into account
local weather conditions and information received by weather fax
INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
• After the lesson, the student shall be able to:
1. Uphold the MMACI: VISION, MISSION. & CORE VALUES.
2. interprets the isobaric patterns of a synoptic weather chart with interpolation and
extrapolation as necessary
3. determines the geostrophic and approximate surface wind speeds from the chart by
use of the geostrophic wind scale
4. determines the weather associated with specific places within the plots
5. determines the likely movement of pressure systems
6. evaluates the use of prognostic charts
7. evaluates the information given in shipping forecasts
8. evaluates the information received from internet and email
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MMACI: VISION; MISSION; & CORE VALUES
❑ VISION:
✔ MMACI, as a leading 21st–Century Institution, envisions to produce globally
competitive individuals founded with excellence in instruction, research, and
extension.
❑ MISSION:
❖ MMACI shall commit to:
✔ Provide knowledge and skills in critical-thinking, creativity, collaboration,
communication, information and media literacy, and computing and ICT literacy,
cross-cultural understanding, and career and learning self-reliant;
✔ Establish a strong research culture in the Institution and design multi-disciplinary
and inter-disciplinary researches that are publishable and contributes to nation
building;
✔ Inspire and uphold a service-oriented organization that nurtures the community
and God’s creations.

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❑ CORE VALUES:
❖ Leadership
✔ MMACI community values the development of highly competent professionals honed to
become selfpropelling leaders and solution-driven innovators.
❖ Excellence
✔ MMACI community values greatness of mind and heart – upholding a culture of
“hands-on, minds-on and hearts-on” to achieving academic excellence.
✔ The hands-on, minds-on and hearts-on approach of Odyssey encourages the students to
experience and engage in learning with their hands, analyze with their minds, and invest
with their hearts as they are deeply involved in their learning process.
❖ Service
✔ MMACI imbibes the principle of genuine concern for others, and generosity for the
community to make a difference in the society.

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• MMACI GRADUATES ARE:
✔ Leaders with strategic and ethical decisions;
✔ Professionals who continuously pursuit
excellence in their chosen field; and
✔ Servants to community and God’s creation

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INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER
• Meteorology is the science dealing with the atmosphere and its
phenomena, including both weather and climate.
• Weather is caused by the movement or transfer of energy. Energy is
transferred wherever there is a temperature difference between two
objects. Many weather phenomena result from a transfer of energy
that occurs via the movement of air in the atmosphere. This is known
as convection.
• Climate is the general weather over a long period. This can include
rainfall, temperature, snow or any other weather condition. We
usually define a region’s climate over a period of 30 years.

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• Air contains water vapour from the evaporation of liquid water
sources on the Earth's surface, including oceans, lakes and rivers,
and from evapotranspiration by plants.
• When air is moved about the Earth, either vertically when uplifted or
horizontally as part of air masses, it may cool and release water
vapour as condensation in the form of clouds and eventually rain and
other forms of precipitation, which is returned to Earth.
• This cycle of evaporation, condensation and precipitation between
the Earth and the atmosphere is known as the water cycle.

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• The physical transfer of heat and moisture by convective processes
is the basis for the formation of many meteorological patterns and
features, including anticyclones, depressions, fronts, monsoons,
thunderstorms, hurricanes and tornadoes.
• Heat however, may also radiate directly from a hot object to a colder
one, without involving the movement of air. Many small-scale
weather phenomena are the result of this form of heat transfer,
including dew, frost and fog.

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• Weather can be simply measured by observing and recording
temperature, rainfall, pressure, humidity, sunshine, wind and
cloudiness.
• It is also possible to identify and name different types of clouds,
which are associated with different patterns of weather. Commonly
observed cloud types include cirrus, cumulus, cumulonimbus and
stratus.
• To make predictions and forecasts about what the weather will do in
the future however, it helps to draw synoptic charts, composed of
special weather symbols and isobars that reveal patterns of weather.
• The use of sophisticated technology such as weather radar and
satellite imagery also assist with weather forecasting.

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WHAT IS MEANT BY SYNOPTIC WEATHER
CHARTS?
• The word 'synoptic' simply means a summary of the current
situation.
• A synoptic chart is the scientific term for a weather map.
• Synoptic charts provide information on the distribution, movement
and patterns of air pressure, rainfall, wind and temperature. This
information is conveyed using symbols, which are explained in a
legend.
• Synoptic charts are used to report on the current weather and to
predict future weather patterns.

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SYNOPTIC WEATHER CHARTS
• These charts show the surface
pressure pattern using isobars (lines of
equal pressure) and indicate areas of
high (H) and low pressure (L) along with
their central pressure value.
• Isobars are represented by solid lines.
• High pressure is usually associated with
settled weather while low pressure is
normally associated with unsettled
weather.
• Fronts are also displayed.
• An analysis chart, which shows the
observed state of the weather, is issued
along with forecast charts up to five
days ahead.

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SYNOPTIC WEATHER CHARTS & SYMBOLS

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ISOBARS ON A WEATHER CHART
• The circular lines are isobars, similar
to contour lines on a land map, and
join areas of equal barometric
pressure.
• Air moves from high to low pressure
and when the difference in the
pressure is greater, the airflow or
wind will also be greater.
• Isobars that are close together
indicate stronger winds.
• Isobars that are further apart indicate
lighter winds.
• The wind scale inset in the top left of
the chart helps you to forecast wind
speed.

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ISOBARS ON A WEATHER CHART
• Wind direction in the northern
hemisphere air moves around high
pressure in a clockwise direction and low
pressure in an anticlockwise direction, so
isobars on a weather map indicate the
direction and speed of the wind as well
as the pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure, also known as
barometric pressure (after the
barometer), is the pressure within the
atmosphere of Earth.
• The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm)
is a unit of pressure defined as:101,325
Pa; 1,013.25 hPa, which is equivalent
to1013.25 millibars; 760 mm Hg;
29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi.

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WHAT IS MEANT BY FRONT
• A front is a weather system
that is the boundary
separating two different
types of air.
• One type of air is usually
denser than the other, with
different temperatures and
different levels of humidity.

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TYPES OF FRONT
• Cold fronts
• A cold front is symbolized on a weather map
as a line with triangles. The triangles can be
thought of as icicles. Cold fronts are often
coloured blue.
• The presence of a cold front means that cold
air is advancing and pushing underneath
warmer air. This is because the cold air is
'heavier,' or denser, than the warm air.
• Cold air is thus replacing warm air at the
surface. The tips of the 'icicles' indicate the
direction of movement of the cold air.

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TYPES OF FRONT
• Warm fronts
• A warm front is symbolized on a weather
map as a line with semicircles. The
semicircles can be thought of as half suns.
Warm fronts are often coloured red.
• The presence of a warm front means that
warm air is advancing and rising over cold
air. This is because warm air is 'lighter,' or
less dense than cold air.
• Warm air is replacing cooler air at the
surface. The edges of the 'suns' indicate the
direction of movement of the warm air.

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TYPES OF FRONT
• Stationary fronts
• A stationary front forms when a cold front
or warm front stops moving.
• This happens when two masses of air are
pushing against each other, but neither is
powerful enough to move the other.
• Winds blowing parallel to the front instead
of perpendicular can help it stay in place.
A stationary front may stay put for days.

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TYPES OF FRONT
• Occluded fronts
• An occluded front is symbolized on a
weather map as a line with both semicircles
and triangles. They are often coloured
purple.
• These are slightly more complex than cold or
warm fronts.
• The word occluded means 'hidden' and an
occlusion occurs when the cold front 'catches
up' with the warm front.
• The warm air is then lifted from the surface,
and therefore hidden.
• An occlusion can be thought of as having the
characteristics of both warm and cold fronts.

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PLOTTING WEATHER OBSERVATIONS
• The first stage in
preparing a
synoptic chart is
to chart the
position of each
meteorological
station. These are
marked by a small
circle.
• The weather
report for each
station is then
plotted in and
around the circle.

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PLOTTING WEATHER OBSERVATIONS

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WHAT IS MEANT BY GEOSTROPHIC WIND
• That horizontal wind velocity for which the Coriolis force exactly balances the
horizontal pressure gradient force.
• The geostrophic wind is thus directed along the contour lines on a
constant-pressure surface (or along the isobars in a geopotential surface) with low
elevations (or low pressure) to the left in the northern hemisphere and to the right
in the southern hemisphere.
• Geostrophic winds and currents flow counterclockwise around low-pressure zones
and clockwise around high-pressure zones in the Northern Hemisphere. In the
Southern Hemisphere, they flow clockwise around low-pressure zones and
counterclockwise around high-pressure zones.

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WHAT IS MEANT BY GEOSTROPHIC WIND

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GEOSTROPHIC WIND II (TABLE)
• A geostrophic wind flows parallel
to the isobars. In this model of
wind flow in the Northern
Hemisphere, wind begins as a flow
of air perpendicular to the isobars
(measured in millibars) under the
primary influence of the pressure
gradient force (PGF). As the
movement begins, the Coriolis
force (CF) begins to influence the
moving air causing it to deflect to
the right of its path.

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GEOSTROPHIC WIND SCALE ON SYNOPTIC
CHART
• Horizontal pressure gradients exert a force that
accelerates fluid molecules in the direction of pressure
decrease on the gradient. The acceleration increases as
the strength of the the pressure gradient increases.
• The Coriolis effect deflects fluids that flow on a pressure

gradient until they flow across the gradient. The flow
then continues along a line of constant pressure (isobar)
as a geostrophic flow.
• Geostrophic flow conditions occur when the pressure

gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis deflection.
• Geostrophic wind and current speeds are determined by

the steepness of the pressure gradient. Wind or current
speed increases as the steepness of the gradient
increases.
• Geostrophic wind or current speed and direction can be

determined from isobaric maps. The direction of flow is
parallel to the isobars, and the speed is higher where the
pressure gradient is steeper (isobars are closer
together).

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PRESSURE GRADIENT, PRESSURE GRADIENT
FORCE
• All winds result from horizontal differences in air pressure. Basically, air is forced
or pushed from regions of higher air pressure toward lower air pressure.
• In all cases, air is forced to move from high toward low pressure and the greater
the difference in pressure, the stronger the force on the air, and the faster the air
moves.
• The pressure gradient describes both the direction of the pressure change (from
high toward low pressure) and the strength of the pressure change (change in air
pressure divided by the distance over which the pressure changes).

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FORCE
• The pressure gradient results in a pressure
gradient force, which pushes air in the
direction of the pressure gradient. The
stronger the pressure gradient, the stronger
the pressure gradient force and the stronger
the winds.
• The image on the right is like how pressure
information is plotted on surface weather
maps.
• The air pressure is 1012 mb at the "H"
(highest pressure in image) and the air
pressure is 1004 mb at the "L" (lowest
pressure in image).

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FORCE
• The pressure gradient force pushes from high
to low pressure as shown by the blue arrow.
The strength of the pressure gradient is the
change in pressure divided by the change in
distance as shown.
• The most important point for now is that you
understand what is meant by a pressure
gradient and a pressure gradient force, not
whether or not you can calculate a number
based on a weather map.
• Also keep in mind that while the pressure
gradient force is the root cause of all wind, there
are other forces that must be considered to
determine the direction of the wind.

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FORCE
• Although air pressure changes rapidly along
the vertical direction, this does not cause
the air to move upward due to hydrostatic
balance, in which the upward pressure
gradient force is balanced by the weight of
the air above.
• This means the vertical pressure gradient
force points upward from higher to lower air
pressure. This upward pressure gradient
force is just enough to hold up the weight of
the air above it. The near balance of forces
means that air does not easily move up or
down in the atmosphere.

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WHAT IS MEANT BY PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
• A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future
time. Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical
weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature,
wind, precipitation and weather fronts. They can also indicate derived
atmospheric fields such as vorticity, stability indices, or frontogenesis. Forecast
errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute
error, or by considering persistence and absolute error combined.
• The forecast map showing the state of the atmosphere at a future time is called
a prognostic chart. Prognostic charts generated by computer models are
sometimes referred to as machine-made forecasts.

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WHAT IS MEANT BY PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
• Surface weather prognostic charts for mariners indicate the positions of high and
low pressure areas, as well as frontal zones, up to five days into the future.
Surface wind direction and speed is also forecast on this type of chart.
• Wave prognostic charts show the expected sea state at some future time.
Low-level prognostic charts used by aviators show the forecast between the
Earth's surface and 24,000 feet (7,300 m) above sea level over the next two
days.

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MANUAL PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
• Manual prognostic charts
depict tropical cyclones,
turbulence, weather fronts,
rain and snow areas,
precipitation type and
coverage indicators, as well
as centers of high and low
pressure.

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AUTOMATIC PROGNOSTIC CHARTS
• Atmospheric models are
computer programs that
produce meteorological
information, including
prognostic charts, for future
times at given locations and
altitudes
• An automated prognostic
chart of the 96-hour forecast
of 850 mbar geopotential
height and temperature from
the Global Forecast System

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SHIPPING FORECAST

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RANGE OF INFORMATION AVAILABLE
• Nautical Publication: ADMIRALTY LIST OF RADIO SIGNALS (ALRS)
1) Volume 3 (NP283) - Maritime Safety Information Services (Parts 1 & 2)
▪ Split across two publications, Volume 3 includes radio details for:
a) Maritime Weather Services
b) Radio Weather and Navigational Warnings
c) NAVTEX and EGC Services with comprehensive broadcast information
d) Submarine and Gunnery Warning details (Subfacts and Gunfacts)
e) Radio-Facsimile Stations, frequencies and weather map areas
2) Volume 4 (NP284) - Meteorological Observation Stations
❖ This volume includes:
a) All Met Observation Stations listed worldwide
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• Nautical Publication: ADMIRALTY LIST OF RADIO SIGNALS (ALRS)
3) Volume 5 (NP285) - Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)
• This volume includes:
a) Worldwide communication requirements for distress, search and rescue
b) Extracts from SOLAS and ITU Regulations
c) Distress and SAR (incorporating MRCC and MRSC contacts)
d) NAVTEX and and EGC Service fundamentals, with an overview of the MSI broadcasts
by each
e) MSI fundamentals under the Worldwide Navigational Warning Service
f) Worldwide NAVAREA and National Coordinator contact details

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• GMDSS EQUIPMENTS:
• MARINE WEATHER FACSIMILE:
• Facsimile (fax) is a means of providing weather information to ships at sea. The
information is presented as a chart (map), showing barometric high pressures, low
pressures, pressure gradients, wind speed and direction, and temperature.
• NARROW BAND DIRECT PRINTING (NBDP) or SITOR:

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1) MARINE WEATHER FACSIMILE:
• Facsimile (fax) is a means of providing weather
information to ships at sea.
• The information is presented as a chart (map),
showing barometric high pressures, low pressures,
pressure gradients, wind speed and direction, and
temperature.
• Early Facsimile recorders (into the 1970's) required
a navigator to listen for a signal, select the correct
speed, start the recorder and manually synchronize
the recorder with the signal. In the 1970's fax
recorders became automatic, starting at a start
signal, synchronizing before the text of the
broadcast, then stopping when the end of the
broadcast is received.

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2) NAVIGATION TELEX (NAVTEX):
• Is part of the Global Maritime Distress
Safety System (GMDSS), supplying
shipping with weather reports and
navigational warnings.
• NAVTEX is broadcast on 518 kHz using
SITOR-B at 100 baud.

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3) NARROW BAND DIRECT PRINTING (NBDP)
• Is a telex. A way to communicate with text rather than by voice.

It is said that NBDP was introduced in the GMDSS to help
seafarers whose first language was not English. They did not
have to speak to broadcast their distress message, instead they
could type and send.
• Radiotelex is a communication system that handles the

transmission and reception of telex messages over radio.
Basically the system consists of the Radiotelex software and a
Radiotelex module (modem).
• SIMPLEX TELETYPE OVER RADIO (SITOR):
• It is similar to RTTY but implements error correction.
• SITOR-A uses Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) and is used

for point-to-point links. It has a characteristic chirping sound.
• SITOR-B uses Forward Error Correction (FEC) and is used for

broadcasts.

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4) INMARSAT-C:
• Inmarsat C is a two-way store and
forward communication system that
transmits messages in data packets in
ship-to-shore, shore-to-ship and
ship-to-ship direction.

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5) VHF (DSC) RADIO:
• Digital selective calling or DSC is a
standard for transmitting predefined
digital messages via the
medium-frequency, high-frequency and
very-high-frequency maritime radio
systems. It is a core part of the Global
Maritime Distress Safety System.

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WEATHER FORECAST
CURRENT WEATHER CHART ISSUED 18/01/2023
0800UTC

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WEATHER FORECAST
7-DAY FORECAST CHART ISSUED: 01/18 16:30 VALID: 01/19 ~
01/25

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WEATHER FORECAST
01/25

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WEATHER FORECAST
01/25

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WEATHER FORECAST
01/25

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WEATHER FORECAST
QUANTITATIVE PRECIPITATION FORECASTS

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HOW IS WAVE HEIGHT MEASURED?
• Wave height is the vertical distance
between the crest (peak) and the trough
of a wave.
• Some other definitions:
• Still-Water Line is the level of the lake
surface if it were perfectly calm and flat.
• Crest is the highest point on the wave
above the still-water line.
• Trough is the lowest point on the wave
below the still-water line.

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TYPICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WAVE HEIGHTS
• Explanation of the arrows being pointed to on the graph
above:
• H is the most probable or the most frequent wave height,
this is not displayed in the forecast. The most frequent
wave height is approximately half the value of the
significant wave height.
• H (with the line above the H) is the average weight
height. This is not displayed in the forecast. The average
wave height is estimated to be about 5/8 the value of the
significant wave height
• Hs is the significant wave height. This is the average of
the highest one third of waves. This is currently what is
displayed in the forecast.
• H1/10 is the average of the highest 10% of waves
observed. This is what is newly being displayed in our
forecast. This is indicated by "Waves occasionally to xx
feet".

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TYPICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WAVE HEIGHTS
• Hsig Wave Height: The average
height (from wave crest to trough)
of the one-third highest waves,
including swell, at a location
during a wave measurement time
period. Individual wave heights
vary, so that a statistical
description, such as significant
wave height, is used to define
wave heights over a time period.

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WAVE CHARTS

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WAVE CHARTS

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WHAT IS AN ICE CHART
• Ice and iceberg charts serve tactical (day-to-day) or strategic (longer-term) planning and
operational purposes. They illustrate ice or iceberg conditions at a particular moment in
time. The ice information is presented using a standard international code, known as the
Egg Code.
• The following charts are available from the Canadian Ice Service:
1) Daily ice charts
2) Regional ice charts
3) Departure from normal concentration charts
4) Image analysis charts
5) Aircraft ice charts
6) Iceberg charts
7) St. Lawrence River observed ice charts
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ICE CHART EGG CODE

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STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT COLOUR CODE

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TOTAL ICE CONCENTRATION COLOUR CODE &
HATCHING

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DAILY ICE CHARTS
▪ Daily Ice charts represent the
best estimate of ice conditions
at the valid time of the chart,
based on an integration of data
from a variety of sources, such
as satellite, and ship and
aircraft-based visual
observations.
▪ Daily Ice Chart - Concentration
& Development for Western
Great Lakes

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REGIONAL ICE CHARTS
▪ Regional ice charts show the
analysis of ice conditions for a
given region valid on Mondays.
They are based on an analysis
and integration of data from:
satellite imagery, weather and
oceanographic information, visual
observations from ship and
aircraft. Satellite imagery is
collected over a few days in order
to have complete coverage of the
area.
▪ Weekly Regional Ice Chart
Concentration & Development for
Western Great Lakes

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DEPARTURE FROM NORMAL CONCENTRATION
CHARTS
▪ Shows the differences of concentration
between the ice concentration on the
current regional ice chart and the Median
of Ice Concentration for the period of
1981-2010 as shown in our climatic ice
atlases.
▪ Areas in red indicate less ice than normal,
and areas in blue indicate more ice than
normal. Different shades of red and blue
correspond to different categories of the
departure from normal ice concentration
as shown in the chart legend.
▪ Areas with normal concentrations are
shown in white. This allows for a quick
comparison between current conditions
and normal conditions.

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IMAGE ANALYSIS CHARTS
▪ The Canadian Ice Service acquires Synthetic Aperture Radar Satellite imagery in
order to have data available for the provision of ice information. Upon request of
specific clients, Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery will be analysed in more detail
than for the daily ice charts and these image analysis usually available to the public.
▪ The area covered by the image analysis coincides with an area related to the
satellite path. The path of the satellite changes each day so the chart area shifts
from one day to the next. The usual width of the satellite data collection for ice
information is about 500 kilometres. At the Canadian Ice Service, we use 100 metre
resolution.
▪ Ice conditions are described using the International Standard Ice Code. The code
describes the ice in terms of total and partial concentrations, the stages of
development and form of the four main ice types present.

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AIRCRAFT ICE CHARTS
▪ These charts present information on ice conditions at the time of the aircraft survey, based
on data collected through visual observations. These visual observations are done by Ice
Service Specialists with the use of a "Side-Looking-Airborne-Radar" onboard the aircraft.
The charts are available year-round but coverage varies depending on the season.
▪ Using the Egg Code format, the chart provides details on the concentration and boundaries
of the ice, types and stage of development, floe sizes, leads and fractures, surface
topography (ridging and rafting), snow cover, and icebergs where present. The area of
coverage is restricted to the flight path of the aircraft and helicopters. With good visibility,
visual observations are highly accurate, with a resolution of one to two metres (the size of
brash ice).
▪ Aircraft ice charts are regularly used for ship routing by the Canadian Coast Guard, and by
companies and other organizations that need detailed information on ice conditions for
operational or research purposes.

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ICEBERG CHARTS
▪ This chart presents an estimate of iceberg conditions in East Coast waters south of
60° N. The conditions are based on visual observations of icebergs from ships,
aircraft and occasionally from icebergs analyzed from satellite imagery. The position
and size of the icebergs are input into customized software that forecasts the
position of the icebergs to 00:00 UTC. An estimated iceberg limit is provided for
guidance north of 53 ºN. These areas are not monitored for icebergs using aircraft
so the limit is based on climatology and ship reports.
▪ The iceberg analysis chart includes an estimate of the number of icebergs per
degree square of latitude and longitude including bergy bits or growlers, the iceberg
limit and the sea-ice limit.
▪ This chart is important for those who require iceberg information in East Coast
waters, such as ship operators planning routes in the Atlantic.
▪ For additional iceberg information please visit International Ice Patrol.

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DAILY ICEBERG ANALYSIS CHART NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
COASTS
WIS65 - 2023-01-22 00:00 UTC

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ST. LAWRENCE RIVER OBSERVED ICE CHARTS
• These charts provide information on ice conditions in the region at the time of the
survey, based on data collected through visual observations by Ice Service
Specialists onboard Canadian Coast Guard ships and helicopters.
• Using the Egg Code format, the chart provides details on the concentration and
boundaries of the ice, types and stage of development, floe sizes, leads and
fractures, surface topography (ridging and rafting), and snow cover where present.
The area of coverage is restricted to the flight path of the helicopters. With good
visibility, visual observations have a resolution of one to two metres (the size of
brash ice).

66
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
THE USE OF THE 500 MB CHART AT SEA
• The 500mb chart is a constant
pressure chart which means that
everywhere on the chart the air
pressure is the same (500mb).
This occurs in our atmosphere,
on average, at a height of about
5600 meters or about 18,000ft
above sea level but varies from
place to place due to the density
of the air column.

67
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• The heights depicted on this chart represent the level at which the air pressure
reaches 500mb or about one half the normal surface pressure of about 1013mb).
• The lines depicted on the chart are lines of equal height and are given in “tens of
meters” above sea level so that the “540 line” on the chart means that the 500mb
level is located at a height of 5,400 meters above sea level.
• Heights increase when the air is warmer and less dense and fall when the air is
colder and denser so that the distance between these height lines indicates the
slope of the 500mb surface.
• The 500mb forecast chart is an excellent tool for mariners to estimate where to
anticipate the heaviest sea and swell conditions as well as a guide to the expected
surface storm tracks and intensities.

68
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• On the marine version of the 500mb charts the “564” (5640 meter contour) is
highlighted in dark black as it often depicts the southern limit of force 7 or higher
westerlies during the winter and force 6 westerlies during the summer.
• Also the primary surface low storm tracks will tend to lie about 300 to 600 nautical
miles northward of this line.
• A good rule of thumb is that surface lows and fronts will advance at a rate of 1/3 to
1/2 of the 500mb wind speed.
• Another rule is that the surface winds in the cold southwestern quadrant of surface
lows tend to be about one half the intensity of the 500mb wind speed above.

69
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• The closer the height contours on the 500mb chart, the faster the upper level wind
flow, the stronger the temperature contrasts and the more active is the surface
weather below.
• The development and strengthening of surface lows and the associated bad
weather most often occurs on the eastern side of 500mb troughs while surface
high pressure and good weather is associated with the western side of these
troughs.
• Without even looking at the surface pressure charts, a mariner can estimate what
areas might be best to avoid.

70
OCEANOGRAPHY 2

71
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
Example of an ECMWF 192 hour forecast of 500 mb True (actual) 500 mb heights at 00Z on Friday, October
heights valid at 00Z Friday, October 11, 2013. 11, 2013. This map can be used to evaluate the accuracy
of the forecast.
72
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
READING THE PRESSURE PATTERN ON SURFACE
(OR SEA LEVEL) WEATHER CHARTS
• Station pressure is defined as the barometer reading observed at ground level at a
given meteorological station.
• A barometer is an instrument used to measure air pressure.
• The surface level air pressures measured all around the world can be plotted on a
weather map to show the pattern of air pressure changes.
• Station pressures are normally adjusted to a altitude level of mean sea level and
the adjusted pressure is called Sea level pressure.
• The size of the adjustment depends primarily on how high the station is above sea
level.

73
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• Station pressure is defined as the barometer reading
observed at ground level at a given meteorological
station.
• A barometer is an instrument used to measure air
pressure.
• The surface level air pressures measured all around
the world can be plotted on a weather map to show the
pattern of air pressure changes.
• Station pressures are normally adjusted to a altitude
level of mean sea level and the adjusted pressure is
called Sea level pressure.
• The size of the adjustment depends primarily on how
high the station is above sea level.

74
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• These "maps" are called
sea level pressure charts or
surface weather maps. An
example of a surface
weather map with isobars is
shown in green lines.
• The surface pressure map
indicates a strong low (L,
985 mb) over Nebraska and
a weak high (H, 1016 mb)
near the Great Lakes.

75
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
READING THE PRESSURE PATTERN ON UPPER AIR
WEATHER CHARTS
• Horizonal winds blowing at different altitudes above sea level are also very
important in determining what is going on with the weather. Upper air weather
charts are drawn to visualize pressure patterns at different altitudes. We have also
used the 500 mb upper air chart to get a picture of the large-scale weather pattern
around the world.
• The pattern of height contours indicate how air pressure varies along horizontal
surfaces, for a horizontal surface located where the air pressure is 500 mb.
• Air is forced or pushed from higher heights toward lower heights and the more
closely spaced the height contours, the stronger the pressure gradient and the
stronger the winds.

76
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
DETERMINING WIND DIRECTION AND RELATIVE
WIND SPEED FROM WEATHER CHARTS
• The driving force for all wind is the horizontal change in pressure, the greater the
horizontal change in pressure (or more precisely the pressure gradient), the greater
the windspeed.
• The pressure gradient is the horizontal change in pressure divided by the horizontal
change in distance.
• On a weather chart, the magnitude of the pressure gradient can be seen by
examining the spacing between the contour lines of the map (isobars on the
surface map or height contours on the upper air map).
• Where the lines are closest together, the horizontal change in pressure is stronger,
and the winds are stronger.
• Higher windspeeds are found where the contour lines are closest together. The
force exerted on air by changes in air pressure is known as the pressure gradient
force. The direction of the pressure gradient force is from higher pressure toward
lower pressure.
77
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
DETERMINING WIND DIRECTION AND RELATIVE
WIND SPEED FROM WEATHER CHARTS
• The actual wind direction is turned away from this direction because the Earth is
rotating. This phenonemon is called the Coriolis effect or Coriolis force.
• The Coriolis force is caused by the rotation of the Earth. It arises on a rotating
object because of the relationship between the rotating object and the inertia of a
mass moving on the object.
• The Coriolis force acts on moving air masses and water masses, and its effect is
only significant on timescales longer than about a day.
• When viewed from the Earth, the practical effect of the Coriolis force is to
accelerate an air mass to the right of its forward motion in the Northern Hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis force acts on an air or
water parcel no matter which direction it is traveling, North, South, East, or West.
The Coriolis force increases from the Equator to the poles, where it is strongest.

78
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
UPPER AIR WEATHER CHARTS (E.G., 500 MB
MAP)
• The Coriolis force turns the wind to the right (of the pressure gradient) in the
northern hemisphere and to the left (of the pressure gradient) in the southern
hemisphere.
• At all altitude levels above the ground surface (includes all upper air charts, but not
surface charts), the wind direction is 90° to the right of the direction of the pressure
gradient force.
• The pressure gradient force is directed from high heights (or pressures) toward low
heights (or pressures).
• Upper air charts the wind moves parallel to the height contours, with lower heights
to the left of the wind direction.

79
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
MAP)
• Sample 500 mb map showing height
contours in black.
• The direction of the pressure gradient
force (from high to low heights) is shown
in red.
• The wind direction at 500 mb, shown in
blue, is turned 90° to the right of the
pressure gradient force due to the
Coriolis Effect.

80
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
MAP)
• Sample 500 mb map depicting a closed
low.
• The direction of the pressure gradient
force is inward toward the low.
• The wind direction is 90° to the right of
the pressure gradient force and flows
counterclockwise around the center of
the closed low.

81
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
SURFACE (OR SEA LEVEL) WEATHER CHARTS
• A general rule of thumb is that the wind
direction just above the ground surface is
only turned about 60° to the right of the
pressure gradient force, instead of 90°
right of the pressure gradient force as it
is on uppper air maps.
• Thus, on surface weather charts the
wind direction, rather than being parallel
Sample surface map showing isobars of sea level
to the isobars, points about 30° toward pressure in black. The direction of the pressure gradient
lower pressure. force (from high to low pressure) is shown in red. The
direction 90° to the right of the pressure gradient force is
shown in green. On surface maps the wind direction,
shown in blue, is not parallel to the contours, but is 30°
toward lower pressure as shown.

82
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• Sample surface map depicting a closed
high. The direction of the pressure
gradient force is outward away from the
center of the high.
• As depicted in the caption under the
figure to the left, to find the wind
direction, first find the direction 90° to the
right of the pressure gradient force, then
the wind direction is 30° toward lower
pressure.
• The wind pattern near a surface high
pressure is clockwise around the high,
but also spiraling outward away from the
high.

83
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• The document reviews both 500 mb winds and surface winds. An important
consequence of the fact that winds do not blow parallel to the isobars on a surface
weather map, but slightly toward low pressure, is that surface winds cause air to
converge toward surface low pressure (forcing rising motion) and to diverge away
from surface high pressure (forcing sinking motion).
• Where rising motion is forced, clouds and possibly precipitation may be found, while
where sinking motion is forced, fair weather and lack of cloud formation is most
likely.

84
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• The arrows represent the wind
trajectories. The length of the arrow
indicates relative wind speed and the
direction shows the movement of an air
parcel by the wind.
• The winds at 500 mb are called the
“steering level winds” since the motion of
hurricanes and other weather systems
often moved around by the 500 mb
winds.

85
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• The other type of weather chart is the surface
weather chart. The basic rules for estimating wind
speed and wind direction are the same as for the
500 mb contour map, except that the wind direction
is turned about 30° toward lower pressure instead
of being exactly parallel to the contour lines.
• The convergence forces air to move upward, which
results in the formation of clouds. For a circular
area of surface high pressure (not shown below),
the winds will be clockwise and outward (or
diverging). The air flow is spiraling outward. The
divergence forces air to move downward, which
results in fair weather.
• Stormy weather is often associated with surface
low pressure areas and fair weather with surface
highs.

86
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
• The definitions of horizontal
convergence and divergence of
air, the relationship between
surface convergence/divergence
and forced rising/sinking air
motion, and why clouds and
precipitation are associated with
surface low pressure areas.
• Convergence: is horizontal inflow
of air into a region.
• Divergence: is horizontal outflow
of air away from a region.

87
OCEANOGRAPHY 2
END OF LESSON
GOODLUCK
GOD BLESS
88
OCEANOGRAPHY 2

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MERCHANT MARINE ACADEMY OF

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B. BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY & OCEANOGRAPHY 2

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

• The Coriolis effect deflects fluids that flow on a pressure

• Geostrophic flow conditions occur when the pressure

• Geostrophic wind and current speeds are determined by

• Geostrophic wind or current speed and direction can be

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

3) NARROW BAND DIRECT PRINTING (NBDP)

• Is a telex. A way to communicate with text rather than by voice.

• Radiotelex is a communication system that handles the

• SIMPLEX TELETYPE OVER RADIO (SITOR):

• It is similar to RTTY but implements error correction.

• SITOR-A uses Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) and is used

• SITOR-B uses Forward Error Correction (FEC) and is used for

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &

INSTRUCTOR: 2/M EDILBERT B.BRIONES, MME METEOROLOGY &