Student Name: Guifré Sánchez Serra

Quantum information processing

Assignment 2

Exercise 1. Dynamics of spin 1/2.

a.

First we note that:

t tℏ t t∥v∥ v t∥v∥
H= (δσz − ω1 σx ) = (−ω1 , 0, δ) · σ = ·σ = n·σ (1)
ℏ ℏ2 2 2 ∥v∥ 2
where v := (−ω1 , 0, δ), n is the corresponding unit vector v/∥v∥ and σ := (σx , σy , σz ). Thus, taking into
account that:

exp(iαn · σ) = cos(α)id 2 + i sin(α)n · σ (2)

where id 2 is the 2 × 2 identity matrix, and α ∈ R, we see that the evolution matrix is:
 
U (t, 0) = exp −i ℏt H = exp −i t∥v∥


2 n · σ =
   
= cos − t∥v∥
2 id 2 + i sin − t∥v∥ 2 n·σ =
   
= cos t∥v∥
2 id 2 − i sin t∥v∥ 2 n·σ =
    
= cos t∥v∥
2 id 2 − i sin t∥v∥
2
−ω1
∥v∥ σ x + δ
∥v∥ σ z = (3)
   

= cos t∥v∥
2 ( 1 0 ) − i sin t∥v∥
0 1 2
−ω1 0 1
∥v∥ ( 1 0 ) + δ
∥v∥
1 0
0 −1 =
       
t∥v∥ t∥v∥ δ t∥v∥ ω1
cos 2 − i sin 2 ∥v∥ i sin 2 ∥v∥
=  
t∥v∥ ω1
    
i sin 2 ∥v∥ cos 2 + i sin t∥v∥
t∥v∥
2
δ
∥v∥

In Dirac’s notation, we would have:

n     o    
U (t, 0) = cos t∥v∥
2 − i sin t∥v∥
2
δ
∥v∥ |↑⟩⟨↑| + i sin t∥v∥ ω1
2 ∥v∥ |↑⟩⟨↓| + i sin t∥v∥ ω1
2 ∥v∥ |↓⟩⟨↑| +
n     o (4)
+ cos t∥v∥
2 + i sin t∥v∥
2
δ
∥v∥ |↓⟩⟨↓|
p
with ∥v∥ = ω12 + δ 2 .

b.

ω1
Define ρ := δ . ω1 ≪ δ means that we an approximate U (t, 0) in the limit ρ → 0. Note then that:
q p p
∥v∥ = ω12 + δ 2 = δ 2 (ρ2 + 1) = |δ| 1 + ρ2 → |δ|, as ρ → 0 (5)

Therefore:
sgn(δ) ω1 sgn(δ)ρ
δ
∥v∥ = √δ =√ → sgn(δ), ∥v∥ = √ω1 =√ → 0, as ρ → 0 (6)
|δ| 1+ρ2 1+ρ2 |δ| 1+ρ2 1+ρ2

1
where sgn(x) = ±1 depending on x being positive or negative, respectively. Taking this into account, we
can approximate the evolution matrix as:
     
cos t|δ|2 − i sin t|δ|
2 sgn(δ) 0
U (t, 0) ≈      = (7)
0 cos t|δ|
2 + i sin t|δ|
2 sgn(δ)
     
cos t|δ|sgn(δ)
2 − i sin t|δ|sgn(δ)
2 0
=     = (8)
0 cos t|δ|sgn(δ)
2 + i sin t|δ|sgn(δ)
2
 
δ
−it 2
e 0 
= δ =: Ũ (t, 0) (9)
it 2
0 e

where we have used that cos(|x|sgn(x)) = cos(|x|), sin(|x|sgn(x)) = sgn(x) sin(|x|), and sgn(x)|x| = x. It
is then clear that, for the initial state |ψ0 ⟩ = √12 (|↑⟩ + |↓⟩), a good approximation of its evolution at time
t is:
δ δ
e−it 2 eit 2
|ψt ⟩ ≈ Ũ (t, 0) |ϕ0 ⟩ = √ |↑⟩ + √ |↓⟩ (10)
2 2
δ
Multiplying by a global phase eit 2 we obtain:
1 1
|ψt ⟩ ≈ √ |↑⟩ + eitδ √ |↓⟩ = cos π
|↑⟩ + eitδ sin π



4 4 |↓⟩ (11)
2 2
Recall that a representation of a general qubit state in the Bloch sphere is given by:

cos 2θ |↑⟩ + eiϕ sin 2θ |↓⟩

(12)

with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π. Therefore the given approximation for |ψt ⟩ can be parametrized in
the Bloch sphere as θt = π2 and ϕt = tδ. Hence, in the Bloch sphere, |ψt ⟩ describes a rotation along the
equator, with frequency |δ| and period 2π|δ| . The rotation will be counterclockwise for δ > 0 and clockwise
for δ < 0. The following figure depicts the described situation.

2
Figure 1: Rotation on the Bloch sphere around the Z axis (along the equator). The initial state would
be √12 (|↑⟩ + |↓⟩). In this case the rotation is counterclockwise because δ is assumed to be positive.

c.

Similar to what was discussed in b. we will have:

ω1 δ
∥v∥ → |ω1 |, → sgn(ω1 ), →0 (13)
∥v∥ ∥v∥
δ
when δ ≪ ω1 or, equivalently, ω1 ≪ 1. Thus, a good approximation for the corresponding evolution
matrix in this case will be:
     
cos t|ω21 | i sin t|ω21 | sgn(ω)
U (t, 0) ≈      =
i sin t|ω21 | sgn(ω) cos t|ω21 |
(14)
cos tω21
i sin tω21




= =: Ũ (t, 0)
i sin tω21 cos tω21
Thus, a good approximation for the evolution at time t of the initial state |ψ0 ⟩ := |↑⟩ would be:
|ψt ⟩ ≈ Ũ (t, 0) |ψ0 ⟩ = cos tω21 |↑⟩ + i sin tω21 |↓⟩



(15)
π
Now, since i = ei 2 , we can parametrize the previous state in the Bloch sphere as θt = tω1 and ϕt = π/2.
This represents a rotation on the Bloch sphere around the X axis, starting at the point θ = 0, ϕ = π2 . The
rotation will be clockwise or counterclockwise depending on ω1 being positive or negative, respectively.
Its frequency is clearly |ω1 |, and the period is therefore |ω2π1 | . The following figure depicts the described
situation.

Figure 2: Rotation on the Bloch sphere around the X axis. The initial state would be |↑⟩. In this case
the rotation is clockwise because ω1 is assumed to be positive.

3
Exercise 2. Creation of entanglement thanks to a magnetic interaction.

a.

We will work in coordinates. Consider the ordered base B := {|↑↑⟩ , |↑↓⟩ , |↓↑⟩ , |↓↓⟩}. In this base, the
given Hamiltonian has the following matrix representation:

H = ℏJσ1z ⊗ σ2z = ℏJ 10 −10 ⊗ 10 −1

0



=
 1 0
1 0


1 0 −1
0 0 −1

= ℏJ =
0 10 −1
0 −1 10 −1 0

1 0 0 0
 (16)
0 −1 0 0
= ℏJ 
0 0 −1 0


0 0 0 1

Since it is time independent, the time evolution operator can be computed as Ut = exp −i ℏt H . Given

that H is diagonal, we have that:

 −itJ 
e 0 0 0
 0 eitJ 0 0 
Ut = 
 0 itJ
 (17)
0 e 0 
0 0 0 e−itJ

Now, note that:

1 1
|ψ0 ⟩ = √ (|↑⟩ + |↓⟩) ⊗ √ (|↑⟩ − |↓⟩) = (18)
2 2
1
= (|↑↑⟩ − |↑↓⟩ + |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩) (19)
2
which, in the base B, has the following coordinate representation:
 
1
1 −1 
|ψ0 ⟩ =   (20)
2 1 
−1

Hence, the state at time t can be represented as follows:

 −itJ   
e 1
−itJ
1 −eitJ 
= e
−e2itJ 
|ψt ⟩ = Ut |ψ0 ⟩ =    (21)
2  eitJ  2  e2itJ 
−e−itJ −1

We will now determine

 i for which values of t is this
 1 state entangled or not. If |ψt ⟩ is not entangled, there
2

must be states ψt ∈ H

 i for i =1, 2 such that ψt ⊗ ψt = |ψt ⟩. We can further assume that the |↑⟩
 
component of both ψt1 and ψt2 is 1 (since we are allowed to multiply by a global phase each of these
states). Thus, if ψt is not entangled, there must exist β, δ ∈ C such that:
   
1 1
 δ  −e2itJ 
   
1 1
⊗ =  β  =  e2itJ 
   (22)
β δ
βδ −1

4
since, again, we are allowed to be equal to |ψt ⟩ up to a global phase on this state (also, we may take care
of normalization later). This implies:

δ = −eiθ , β = eiθ , βδ = −e2iθ = −1 (23)

where θ := 2tJ. For the last equation to be true, we need 2θ = 2πn for some n ∈ Z. That is, θ = πn. In
such case we have β = eiπn = (−1)n , δ = −eiπn = (−1)n+1 . Since θ = 2tJ, this means that |ψt ⟩ is not
π
entangled whenever t is of the form 2J n, with n ∈ Z. We have proven the following.
π
Proposition 1. The state |ψt ⟩ is separable if and only if t is of the form 2J n for some n ∈ Z. In such
case, |ψt ⟩ can be written, up to a global phase, as
1 1
√ (|↑⟩ + (−1)n |↓⟩) ⊗ √ (|↑⟩ − (−1)n |↓⟩) (24)
2 2
or, equivalently, as:
1
(|↑↑⟩ − (−1)n |↑↓⟩ + (−1)n |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩). (25)
2
π
Consider now the state after time t = 4J . This state, in Dirac’s notation, is, according to Eq. 21:
π
 E e−i 4 π π
ψ = (|↑↑⟩ − e2i 4 |↑↓⟩ + e2i 4 |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩) =

π
4J 2 (26)
π
e−i 4
= (|↑↑⟩ − i |↑↓⟩ + i |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩)
2
b.
 E
π
Taking into account Proposition 1, ψ π can be written in the specified form if t = 4J can be ex-

4J
π π π
pressed as 2J n for some n ∈ Z. This is clearly not
 the
E case (if 4J = 2J n for some integer n, we would
1
have n = 2 , which is not an integer). Therefore, ψ π is an entagled state.

4J

c.

π π π
This is equivalent to evolve a time t = 4J + 4J = 2J from the initial state |ψ0 ⟩. According to Eq.
21, the requested final state will be:
π
 e−i 2
E π π
ψ = (|↑↑⟩ − e2i 2 |↑↓⟩ + e2i 2 |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩) =

π
2J 2 (27)
i
= − (|↑↑⟩ + |↑↓⟩ − |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩)
2
 E
π π
Again, using Proposition 1 we can conclude that ψ π is separable, since t = 2J = 2J × 1 (n = 1).

2J
 E π
Moreover, note that ψ π is exactly the state given in Eq. 25 for n = 1 except for a global −i = e−i 2

2J  E
phase. Therefore, we can write ψ π as:

2J

i 1
− √ (|↑⟩ − |↓⟩) ⊗ √ (|↑⟩ + |↓⟩) (28)
2 2

5
d.

Since Jπ = 2J
π
× 2, by Proposition 1 (n = 2), the resulting state is separable. The final state in this
case would be:
 E e−iπ
ψ π = (|↑↑⟩ − e2iπ |↑↓⟩ + e2iπ |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩) =

J 2 (29)
1
= − (|↑↑⟩ − |↑↓⟩ + |↓↑⟩ − |↓↓⟩)
2
−iπ phase. Thus, we
E the state described in Eq. 25 for n = 2 except for a global −1 = e
which is exactly

can write ψ π as:

2J

1 1
− √ (|↑⟩ + |↓⟩) ⊗ √ (|↑⟩ − |↓⟩) (30)
2 2

Note that this is exactly the initial state |ψ0 ⟩ (except for a −1 = e−iπ global phase).

6
Exercise 3. The no-cloning theorem.

a.

Suppose there exists U unitary operator such that:

U |ϕi ⟩ ⊗ |O⟩ = |ϕi ⟩ ⊗ |ϕi ⟩ , for i = 1, 2 (31)

Since U is unitary, we have:

(⟨ϕ1 | ⟨O|)(|ϕ2 ⟩ |O⟩) = ⟨ϕ1 | ⟨O| U † U |ϕ2 ⟩ |O⟩ = (⟨ϕ1 | ⟨ϕ1 |)(|ϕ2 ⟩ |ϕ2 ⟩) = ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ = ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩2 (32)

Note that:

(⟨ϕ1 | ⟨O|)(|ϕ2 ⟩ |O⟩) = ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ ⟨O|O⟩ = ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ (33)

since O is a normalized state in H. Equations 32 and 33 imply that ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ = ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩2 , which means that
⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ has to be either 0 or 1. If ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ = 0, the states |ϕ1 ⟩ , |ϕ2 ⟩ are orthonormal, which contradicts
the conditions of the theorem. If ⟨ϕ1 |ϕ2 ⟩ = 1, it must be that |ϕ1 ⟩ = eiφ |ϕ2 ⟩, with φ ∈ R, i.e. |ϕ1 ⟩ , |ϕ2 ⟩
differ only by a global phase and represent the same physical state. This also contradicts the statement
of the theorem, which requires |ϕ1 ⟩ , |ϕ2 ⟩ to be 2 (physically) different non-orthonormal states.

b.

Suppose1 there exists U linear operator that can clone the superposition of the states |ϕ1 ⟩ , |ϕ2 ⟩, |ϕ12 ⟩ =
√1 (|ϕ1 ⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩). We would then have:
2

1
U |ϕ12 ⟩ ⊗ |O⟩ = |ϕ12 ⟩ ⊗ |ϕ12 ⟩ = (|ϕ1 ⟩ |ϕ1 ⟩ + |ϕ1 ⟩ |ϕ2 ⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩ |ϕ1 ⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩ |ϕ2 ⟩) (34)
2
On the other hand, since U is linear:
1 1
U |ϕ12 ⟩ ⊗ |O⟩ = √ U (|ϕ1 ⟩ |O⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩ |O⟩) = √ (|ϕ1 ⟩ |ϕ1 ⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩ |ϕ2 ⟩) (35)
2 2
where we have used the property that defines U in the statement of the theorem. Note that the obtained
state is different than the one in Eq. 34, which is a contradiction. Therefore, such U does not exist.

1
Here we are considering the following way of stating the no-cloning theorem: given a family of (physically) different
states {|ϕi ⟩}i∈I ⊂ H containing, at least, a pair of non-orthonormal states, there is no general unitary (linear) operator
U : H ⊗ H → H ⊗ H that can clone all the states in the family, i.e. it can not happen √ that U |ϕi ⟩ |O⟩ = |ϕi ⟩ |ϕi ⟩ for all i ∈ I.
The family of states used in this particular case is {|ϕ1 ⟩ , |ϕ2 ⟩ , (|ϕ1 ⟩ + |ϕ2 ⟩)/ 2 =: |ϕ12 ⟩}, which contains a pair of non-
orthonormal states, e.g. |ϕ1 ⟩ and |ϕ12 ⟩.