Socialisation

and the creation of social identity – Exam Style Questions

1. ‘Fixed gender roles are important for making societies stable’.


a) Explain this view. [10]


This perspective places emphasis on the importance of establishing and maintaining
fixed gender roles and their contribution towards maintaining social order and
stability. The sociologist R.W Connell (1987) argues that many cultures believe
that the behaviour of both men and women should conform to hegemonic or
dominant sets of ideas with regards to masculine and feminine identity and
behaviour. Boys and girls are expected to learn culturally acceptable gender roles
and conform to them in order to maintain stability in society. Any failure to conform
to these gender role expectations is likely to be interpreted as deviant.

Wilson (1979) claimed that human behaviour is strongly influenced by biological
programming. According to him women are passive, nurturing and caring, which
makes them best suited to child rearing. On the other hand, male traits of aggression
best suit them to a ‘providing role’ that translates into economic work. The
functionalist sociologist Parsons (1959a) also argues that in most societies, family
roles are organised to reflect the belief that women play an expressive role-that of
caring for others. Men, however, play an instrumental role-with a focus on
providing for the family. This is based on the view that both males and females are
born with certain inherent traits that lead them to perform different cultural roles.
Parsons believed, that ignoring these biological traits would lead to social problems
because it is not making the best use of the different capabilities of men and women.


b) Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6]

Connell et al. (1987) argued that we are not born a ‘man’ or a ‘woman’ but these
gender identities are socially constructed. While biological sex refers to the physical
characteristics that cause people to be labelled male or female, gender refers to the
social characteristics given to each sex. Ann Oakley (1972) suggested that female
identities are shaped in childhood resulting from differences in the way girls and
boys are socialised into gendered identities. This includes differences in clothes and
toys given to play with as children. Lips (1993) also argued that differences in male
and female identities do not occur naturally from biological differences. Gender
identities differ historically and cross-culturally, which means that they are both
learnt and relative. For example, Wojtczak (2009) argues that in Victorian Britain
most women had a status similar to slaves, and their sole purpose was to marry and
reproduce. However, in modern day Britain that is not the case and women have
rights similar to those of men.


In postmodern globalised societies, the concept of singular and centred social
identities is being questioned. The rules governing gender identity are also being
negotiated in many societies where traditional gender roles (‘real men don’t cry’, ‘a
women’s place is in the home’) are being challenged as people develop the freedom
to both invent and adapt their identities. This reiterates the significance of external
influences and socialisation in determining gender roles and negates the argument
that biological traits define gender roles in the best possible manner. For example,
Sue Sharp (1990) and Helen Wilkilson (1994) observe that in many modern
capitalist societies women experience greater educational and employment
opportunities. As a result of which women are more likely to pursue educational
success and professional careers as compared to their mothers and grandmothers.
Schauer (2004) suggests that alternative masculinities that may challenge
dominant hegemonic masculinity also exist in several societies. This would include
complicit masculinities; men who combine paid work with their share of unpaid
housework and childcare and taking on aspects of the traditional feminine role.

2.’Globalisation is giving people greater choice over their identities.’

a) Explain this view. [10]

Many sociologists such as postmodernists argue that globalisation has had a
significant effect on local identities, which have traditionally been shaped by socio-
economic status, gender, religion and age. Previously, identities were considered to
be stable and fixed. For most individuals, the important markers of their identity
were assigned at birth and beyond their control. For instance, being born with a
fixed gender identity into a particular social class. Hence until fairly recently, the
rules governing how to be young or old, male or female, upper class or working class
were clear, consistent and firmly enforced.


However, globalisation has led to a key social change through the development of
global economic and cultural influences. This has opened up societies and
individuals and provided them exposure to a wide array of different experiences,
behaviours and ideas. For example, in the UK, people eat food from the USA,
India and Thailand, wear clothes from China and listen to music from Korea.
This has led to them importing a range of cultural ideas, styles and fashions from
around the globe, which has led to fragmented identities. For example, global
brands such as McDonalds, Starbucks and KFC often adapt their menus to reflect
local tastes and to avoid offending local culture. Hence Starbucks offering Chai Latte
or Subway offering Chicken Tikka flavoured sandwiches on the menu is one such
example.

Local identities therefore interact with the global, via social media, mass tourism
and cultural commodities such as film, television, sport, fast food and pop music.
The fusing of local and global culture to produce unique hybrids is called
‘glocalisation.’ Luke Martell (2010) claims that local cultures select and adopt
elements of Westernised global culture, which they adapt to local, culture and needs.
For example the Indian film industry known as Bollywood combines contemporary
Western ideas about entertainment with traditional Hindu myth, history and
culture.

Globalisation has increased the number of choices available to individuals, which
has led to the decentering of identities. Since there is no longer one fixed way of
defining identity, identity categories are more easily combined to create a whole
range of hybrid identities. For instance, some young British Asians, define
themselves as Brasian- a mix of both British and Asian cultures and identities. This
is a hybrid identity as it combines aspects of at least two ethnic identities.
The decentering of culture and identity means that people are increasingly open to,
an accepting of, different experiences and the various ways in which they influence
the identity of individuals. One example of this would be changing class identities.
Savage (2007) argues that although people still use class categories as a source of
identity, the meaning of these identities has changed. Greater emphasis is placed on
individual rather than collective experiences and so class identities have also
become more varied. The same can be said for age, gender and ethnic identities in
postmodern societies as a result of globalisation and multiculturalism.


b) Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6]

Bauman (1992) claimed that globalisation has undermined the collectivist identity
of many traditional societies. Globalisation has increased the number of choices
available to citizens and has promoted individual identity at the expense of society.
At the same time it has made us aware of global risks to traditional identities hence
increasing fear and uncertainty in people. This causes some individuals and groups
to get attracted to fundamentalist forms of identity because these promise
certainty and truth. For example in certain Muslim societies the influence of western
consumerism and materialism is seen as a threat to the faith and identity of the next
generation of Muslims, corrupting them, with fashion, pop culture and so on. In
2014 Iran sentenced six teenagers to a year in prison and 91 lashes for
dancing in public to the global pop hit ‘Happy’ by Pharrell Williams.
Giddens (1999) observes that globalisation is interpreted by some Islamic cultures
as a deliberate Western attempt to undermine the traditional relationships between
Muslim parents and children and to encourage liberal social norms, which weaken
Islamic identity among the young. Western norms such as equal rights for women or
freedom of speech are also regarded as a threat to traditional authoritarian male
dominated regimes and patriarchal societies.


An increased exposure to western materialism has led to society being based on
consumerism. People are increasingly defining their identities in terms of the
goods and services they consume. The choices people make have become a way of
impressing on others and define who or what they are. For example, one way of
displaying cultural identity is through a display of wealth that emphasizes an
individual’s wealth and position. Consumption is now linked to background
presentation of the self. What we buy, how we dress and where and how we spend
our leisure time all reveal something about who and what we are. According to
Rampton (2002) identity construction in postmodern societies involves
assembling and piecing together a sense of identity from many changing options.
Identity creation is therefore done through consumption choices and practices.
Shopping malls for example present people with the freedom to browse huge spaces
filled with a range of consumer goods where they ‘shop for identities’.