Adapting Communication to Cultures

and Social Communities

 Cultures also differ in the extent to which they view power differences among
people as normal and right.
Culture that emphasizes
individualism (INDIVIDUALSIM)
personal freedom as more important
than social order
think an honor reflects primarily on
the individual who wins it
Culture that emphasizes collective
well-being (COLLECTIVISM)
orderly society is more important than
personal freedom
believe an honor reflects primarily on
the family of the individual who
receives it
people tend to think any honor an
individual receives reflects on that
person’s family and community.

people generally do not state their

positions directly or strongly and do
not promote themselves.

 In cultures that have relatively low power differences among people, it’s
generally assumed that people with more power earned it and others who
work hard can also earn power.
 Conversely, in cultures where there are larger gaps between people with and
without power, there is a tendency to see the differences as stable and one’s
own position as unlikely to change.
 how they view power differences influence how they communicate.
 In cultures where power is very uneven, those with less power tend not to
challenge the existing hierarchy and to speak respectfully to those with power.
 demographers predict that by 2050 Caucasians will no longer be the majority
of Americans.
 Effectiveness in social and professional life demands that you understand
and adapt your communication to people of varied cultural backgrounds.
Understanding Cultures and Social
Communities
 culture is a way of life—a system of ideas, values, beliefs, customs, and
language that is passed from one generation to the next and that reflects and
sustains a particular way of life.
 Systems which are made up of interacting, interrelated parts. Because
cultures are systems, the interconnected parts of any culture affect one
another and the whole.
 Computer-mediated communication allows us to interact with people who are
not geographically close.
 Telecommuting allows people who previously worked in offices to do their
jobs in their homes or while traveling.
 The one factor of technology affects other factors, such as how, where, and
with whom we communicate, as well as the boundaries of work and personal
life. Because cultures are holistic, no change is isolated from the overall
system.

Multiple Social Communities May Coexist in a Single

Culture
 Individuals are affected not only by the culture as a whole, but also by
membership in groups outside of mainstream culture, which are called social
communities
 Standpoint theory illuminates the importance of social communities.
 Standpoint theory claims that social groups within a culture distinctively
shape members’ perspectives—their perceptions, identities, expectations,
and so forth.
 However, belonging to a particular social community does not necessarily
lead to a standpoint, which is political awareness of the social, symbolic,
and material circumstances of the community and the larger power dynamics
that hold those circumstances in place.
 When a member of a social community develops political awareness of the
forces that create inequity, then that person has a standpoint.
 Race, gender, class, and sexual orientation are primary social communities
in Western culture.
 philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1807) pointed out that stand
points reflect power positions in society.
 those in positions of power have a vested interest in preserving the system
that gives them privileges. Therefore, they are unlikely to perceive its flaws
and inequities. On the other hand, those who are disadvantaged by a system
are able to see inequities and discrimination
GENDER AS A PARTICULAR EXAMPLE OF SOCIAL COMMUNITY
Women
Games that girls favor, such as house
and school, involve few players, require
talk to negotiate how to play because
there aren’t clear-cut guidelines, and
depend on cooperation, sensitivity, and
communication among players.
women’s talk generally is more
expressive and focused on feelings and
relationships, whereas men’s talk tends to tend to be a key foundation of
be more instrumental, assertive, and
competitive
For many women who are socialized in
feminine communities, communication is
the crux of relationships..
Men
Baseball, soccer, and war, which are
typical boys’ games, require more
players and have clear goals and
rules, so less talk is needed to play.
Most boys’ games are competitive,
both between teams and for
individual status within teams.
For many men who were socialized
in masculine communities, activities
friendships and romantic
relationships

 Research on gendered patterns of communication reveals that the rules we

learn through play remain with many of us as we grow older.
 Many women favor management styles that are more collaborative than
those typical of men
 Communication is not only a means to other ends but also an end in itself
 Research finds that communication patterns vary between social classes.
 For example, lower income people tend to live closer to and rely more on
extended families than middle- and upper-income people do
 Different racial and ethnic groups also teach their members distinctive ways
of interacting.
 Each of us communicates in some ways that are consistent with the patterns
of particular social communities to which we belong, and in other ways our
communication departs from norms for those communities. In part, that is
because we belong to many groups.

Dimensions of Cultures and Social Communities

 Geert Hofstede, a Dutch anthropologist and social psychologist, provided
insight into the perspectives, attitudes, and behavioral patterns that
distinguish cultures.
 he conducted more than 100,000 employee opinion surveys at IBM branches
in countries all over the world. Hofstede noticed that there were clear
differences among IBM employees in different cultures.

Hofstede identify five key dimensions that vary among cultures:

These five dimensions help us understand key differences among cultures and
social communities.
  Individualism/Collectivism
 This dimension refers to the extent to which members of a culture understand
themselves as part of and connected to their families, groups, and cultures.
INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM
In cultures high in individualism In cultures high in collectivism
(United States, Australia), people tend (Pakistan, China), people’s identity is
to think of themselves as individuals deeply tied to their groups, families,
who act relatively independently. and clans.

In individualist cultures, the face of in collectivist cultures, the face of the

the individual is more important than group is more important than the
the face of the group. face any individual in that culture or
other group.

 This dimension refers to the extent to which members of a culture understand

themselves as part of and connected to their families, groups, and cultures.
 Stella Ting-Toomey has studied cultural differences in what she calls face,
which includes individual and cultural facets of identity.
 For instance, individual facets of your identity include your major or
profession and your tastes in music whereas cultural facets of identity include
whether you see yourself more as an individual or a member of families,
groups, and your culture.

 Uncertainty Avoidance
 refers to the extent to which people want to avoid ambiguity and vagueness.
 In some cultures (Poland, South  Yet, in other cultures (Hong Kong,
Korea), people like to have Sweden), uncertainty is more
everything spelled out very tolerated and expectations are less
explicitly in order to avoid set since surprises may happen.
misunderstandings.

 Power Distance
 The third dimension of culture is power distance, which refers to the size of
the gap between people with high and low power and the extent to which that
is regarded as normal.
 Social hierarchies exist in all cultures, but how they are understood and
whether they are accepted varies widely.
In some cultures (India, China), the distance In cultures where power distance is
between high and low power is wider than others, low (New Zealand, Norway), people
making for a society in which people respect the tend to expect that those in power will
powerful, and there is lower expectation of have earned it, rather than simply
movement between classes, castes, or levels. gaining power by virtue of position.
 Masculinity/Femininity
 The fourth dimension of cultural is masculinity/femininity (sometimes called
aggressiveness) refers to the extent to which a culture values aggressiveness,
competitiveness, looking out for yourself, and dominating others and nature,
which are typically associated with men) versus gentleness, cooperation, and
taking care of others and living in harmony with the natural world, which tend to
be associated with women.
In cultures that are higher in femininity In cultures that are higher in
(Netherlands, Norway), men and masculinity (Japan, Germany),
women are more gentle, cooperative, however, men are more aggressive
and caring. and competitive.

In highly masculine cultures, women

may also be competitive and assertive,
but generally they are less so than
men.

 Long Term/Short Term Orientation

 The final dimension was not included in Hofstede’s original work, but he
added it later when it became clear to him that cultures varied how long term
their orientations are.
 Long term/short term orientation refers to the extent to which members of
a culture think about long term (history and future) versus short term
(present).

Long-term planning, thrift, and In contrast, living for the moment,

industriousness and respect for elders and not saving for a rainy day, and not
ancestors are valued in cultures with a long having as much respect for elders
term orientation (most Asian countries) and ancestors are more likely to
be found in cultures with a short
term orientation (Australia,
Germany).
The Long Term end of the continuum is
associated with what are sometimes called
Confucian values, although cultures not
historically connected with this influence can
also have a Long Term orientation.

This value is not just about future—it is also

about respect for one’s ancestors and plans
and hopes for those who follow.
 Relationships between Culture and
Communication
 Communication is closely linked to culture because communication
expresses, sustains, and alters culture.Your culture directly shapes how you
communicate
 We are not born knowing how, when, and to whom to speak, just as we are
not born with attitudes about cooperating or competing. We acquire attitudes
as we interact with others, and we then reflect cultural teachings in the way
we communicate.

Four central relationships between culture and communication:

We Learn Culture in the Process of Communicating

 We don’t study our native culture to learn how to behave appropriately.
Instead, we learn a culture’s perspectives and rules during the process of
communicating.
 By observing and interacting with others and being exposed to mass
communication, we learn language and what it means. In other words, in
learning language we learn the values of our culture.
 For example, Children aren’t born knowing that they should respect their
elders or worship youth; they don’t enter the world thinking of themselves as
individuals or members of groups.
 From the moment of birth, we begin to learn the beliefs, values, and norms of
our society.
 Both conscious and unconscious learning are continuous processes through
which we learn language and internalize culture so that it is seamlessly part
of who we are and how we see the world.
 As we learn language, we learn cultural values that are encoded in language.

Communication Is a Primary Indicator of Culture

 One of the best indicators that a culture or social community exists is
communication.
 Because we learn to communicate in the process of interacting with others,
people from different cultures use communication in different ways and
attach different meanings to communicative acts
 Communication reflects and expresses the individualistic or collectivist values
of cultures.
 Individualistic and collectivist cultures tend to cultivate distinct communication
styles.

COLLECTIVIST INDIVIDUALISTIC

Many Asian languages include Reflecting the Western emphasis on

numerous words to describe particular
relationships: my grandmother’s
brother, my father’s uncle, my youngest
son, my oldest daughter. This linguistic
focus reflects the cultural emphasis on
collective life and family relationships.
individualism, the English language has
fewer words to describe the range of
kinship bonds. As people from
individualistic cultures often
misunderstand the values and choices
of people from collectivist cultures.

Collectivist cultures typically rely on a Individualistic cultures generally rely on

high-context communication style,
which is indirect and undetailed and
which conveys meanings more
implicitly than
explicitly.
a low-context communication style,
which is very direct, explicit, and
detailed.

Because people are regarded as Because people are regarded as

interconnected, it is assumed they are
alike in terms of their values and
understandings. Thus, there is no need
to spell
everything out.
distinct individuals, communicators do
not assume that others will share their
meanings or values. Instead,
everything must be spelled out
carefully and clearly.

Instead, communicators assume that Instead, everything must be spelled out

others will understand what carefully and clearly.
isn’t stated and will be able to use
shared
knowledge of situations and relation
ships to interpret vague statements.

Also, in high-context cultures, a per Because self-expression and personal

son’s history (family, status in
community) forms a context for
understanding what a person says.
This context is generally considered
more important than the message itself
initiative are valued in individualistic
cultures, argument and persuasion are
perceived as appropriate

Passing tradition from one generation to the next is how cultures sustain
themselves.

Communication Expresses and Sustains Cultures

 Communication simultaneously reflects and sustains cultural values.
 Each time we express cultural values, we also perpetuate them.
 When some Asian Americans avoid displaying emotions, they fortify and
express the value of self-restraint and the priority of reason over emotion.
 When some Westerners argue, speak up for their ideas, and compete in
conversations, they uphold the values of individuality and assertiveness.
 Communication, then, is a mirror of a culture’s values and a primary means
of keeping them woven into the fabric of everyday life
 “Let’s not waste time.” - The Western preoccupation with time and efficiency
is evident in the abundance of words that refer to time (hours, minutes,
seconds, days, weeks)
 The value Westerners place on productivity may explain why Americans
average only 13 days of vacation yearly while Italians average 42 days…
 “The early bird gets the worm” In the United States, it implies that initiative is
valuable, and “Nice guys finish last” suggests that winning is important and
that it’s more important to be aggressive than nice.

Communication Is a Source of Cultural Change

 In addition to reflecting culture, communication is a source of change in
cultures and social communities.
 Within in the United States, social communities have used communication to
resist the mainstream’s efforts to define their identity. Whenever a group says,
“No, the way you describe me is wrong,” that group initiates change in the
cultural understandings.
 Communication helps propel change by naming things in ways that shape
how we understand them.
 For example, the Civil Rights and Black Power movements motivated black
Americans to assert the value and beauty of black culture. Simultaneously,
African Americans used communication to persuade non-black citizens to
rethink their attitudes and practices.
 In addition to instigating change directly, communication accompanies other
kinds of cultural change. Antibiotics had to be explained to medical
practitioners and to a general public that believed infections were caused by
fate, not by viruses and bacteria.
 Ideas and practices borrowed from one culture must be translated into other
cultures; for example, the Japanese system of management has been
adapted to fit the culture of many U.S. companies.
 Cultures use communication to define what change means and implies for
social life.
 Both an overall culture and particular social communities shape our
perceptions and ways of communicating. Yet we can learn to appreciate
different cultural systems and the diverse forms of communication they foster,
as well as the ways in which multiple social identities shape our
communication.
 Doing so enables us to adapt our communication effectively in response to
the diverse people with whom we interact.

Demonstrations are a form of communication that challenges the status

quo and promotes change in cultural life.
Guidelines for Adapting
Communication
to Diverse Cultures and Social
Communities
To participate effectively in a culturally diverse world, we must adapt our
communication to different contexts and people.
Effective adaptation occurs when we tailor our verbal and nonverbal symbols
and our ways of perceiving, creating climates, listening, and responding.

Engage in Person-Centered Communication

 Uncertainty reduction theory explains that because we find uncertainty
uncomfortable, we try to reduce it.
 To do this, we seek information—we ask questions, we listen and
observe others, we look for patterns in interaction.
 As we learn more about values and norms in a culture or social community,
we become more comfortable interacting with members of that culture or
community.
 In turn, as we interact more, we learn more about what members of a culture
believe and value and the kind of behaviors that are appropriate in the
context .
 Reducing uncertainty by learning about other people and cultures allows
us to engage in person-centered communication.

Person-centeredness involves recognizing another person’s perspective and

taking that into account as you communicate.
Competent communicators adapt to the perspectives of those with whom they
interact.

Person-centeredness requires us to negotiate between awareness of group

tendencies and equal awareness of individual differences.
What describes a group accurately may not apply equally to every member of
the group. A good guideline is to assume that each person with whom you
communicate fits some, but not other, generalizations about his or her social
communities.

Respect Others’ Feelings and Ideas

One of the most disconfirming forms of communication is speaking for others
when they are able to speak for themselves
 it’s rude and disempowering to speak for others.
 we should not assume we understand how they feel or think.
 it isn’t supportive to presume that we understand experiences we haven’t had
 Respecting what others say about their thoughts and feelings is a
cornerstone of effective communication.
 Ethical communicators do not attempt to speak for others and do not
assume they fully understand others’ experiences.

Resist Ethnocentric Bias

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to regard ourselves and our way of life as normal and
superior to other people and other ways of life. Literally, ethnocentrism means to put
our ethnicity (ethno) at the center (centrism) of the universe.
 encourages negative judgments of anything that differs from our ways.
 can lead one group of people to feel it has the right to dominate other groups and
suppress other cultures.
To reduce ethnocentrism, we should remember that what is considered normal and
right varies between cultures.
Cultural relativism recognizes that cultures vary in how they think and behave as well
as in what they believe and value.
 not the same as moral relativism. We can acknowledge that a particular practice
makes sense in its cultural context without approving of it.
 reminds us that something that appears odd or even wrong to us may seem natural
and right from the point of view of a different culture. This facilitates respect, even
when differences exist.

Recognize That Adapting to Cultural Diversity Is a Process

Adapting to cultural diversity is a gradual process that takes time, experience
with a variety of people, and a genuine desire to know and appreciate cultural
differences.

Resistance - a common response to diversity which occurs when we reject the

beliefs of particular cultures or social communities.
 Without reflection, many people
evaluate others based on the standards of their own culture.
 Devaluing whatever differs from our
ways limits human experience and diminishes cultural life.
 Resistance may also motivate members of a culture or social community to
associate only with each other and to remain unaware of commonalities
among people with diverse backgrounds.

Assimilation occurs when people give up their ways and adopt the ways of the
dominant culture. Involves giving up an original cultural identity for a new one.

Tolerance - A second response to diversity which is an acceptance of

differences
whether or not one approves of or even understands them. Tolerance involves
respecting others’ rights to their ways even though we may think their ways
are wrong, bad, or offensive.
 open-mindedness in accepting the existence of differences, yet it is less open
minded in perceiving the value of alternative lifestyles and values
 not as divisive as resistance, it does not actively foster a community in which
people appreciate diversity and learn to grow from encountering differences.

Understanding a third response to diversity, which is understanding that

differences are rooted in cultural teachings and that no cultural teachings are
intrinsically best or right.
 This response builds on the idea of cultural relativism, which we discussed
earlier.
 Rather than assuming that whatever differs from our ways is a deviation from
a universal standard (ours), a person who understands realizes that diverse
values, beliefs, norms, and communication styles are rooted in distinct
cultural perspectives.
 Curiosity, rather than judgment, dominates in this stage, as we make active
efforts to understand others in terms of the values and traditions of their
cultures.

Respect- once we move beyond judgment and begin to understand the cultural
basis for ways that differ from ours, we may come to respect differences.
 allows us to acknowledge genuine differences between groups yet remain
anchored in the values and customs of our culture
 Learning about people who differ from us increases our understanding of
them and
thus our ability to communicate effectively with them.
respect avoids ethnocentrism.

Participation- A final response to diversity in which we incorporate some

practices and values of other groups into our own lives.
 encourages us to develop skills for participating in a multicultural world in
which all of us can take part in some of each other’s customs.
“the ideal society is one in which we build a common civic culture that
celebrates both differences and commonalities.”

 People who respond to diversity by participating learn to be multilingual,

which means they are able to speak and understand more than one
language or more than one group’s ways of using language.
 People reach different stages in their abilities to respond to particular
cultures and social communities.

CONCLUSION
The different responses to cultural diversity that we’ve discussed represent
parts of a process of learning to understand and adapt to diverse cultural
groups. In the course of our lives, many of us will move in and out of various
responses as we interact with people from multiple cultures. At specific times, we
may find we are tolerant of one cultural group, respectful of another, and able to
participate in yet others.

“No matter what culture we belong to, we all have feelings,dreams, ideas,
hopes, fears, and values. Our common humanity transcends many of our
differences.”

SUMMARY

In Chapter 1, we learned that communication is systemic. Because it is

systemic, it must be understood as existing within and influenced by multiple
contexts. In this chapter, we’ve focused on cultures and social communities as
particularly important systems that shape and are shaped by communication.

Five principles summarize the relationships between culture and

communication.
 First, we learn a culture in the process of communicating with others.
 Second, language is a primary indicator that a culture exists.
 Third, multiple social communities may coexist within a single culture, and
people may belong to multiple cultures and social communities.
 Fourth, communication both reflects and sustains cultures.
 Fifth, communication is a potent force for changing cultural life.

The final section of this chapter identified four guidelines for

communicating effectively in a socially diverse world. The most fundamental
guideline is to engage in person-centered communication, which enables us to
adapt to the perspectives and communication styles of others. Extending this, the
second guideline is to respect what others present as their feelings and ideas. In
most situations, speaking for others is presumptuous, and disregarding what they
express is rude. The third guideline is to resist ethnocentrism, which is the
greatest threat to effective cross-cultural communication.
Finally, we learned that adapting to diversity is a process. We may find
that our response to diversity changes as we grow personally and as we develop
relationships with people who differ from us. Moving beyond the belief that our
ways are the only right ways allows us to understand, respect, and sometimes
participate in a diverse world and to enlarge ourselves in the process.
Although this chapter has focused on differences between people, it would
be a mistake to be so aware of differences that we overlook our commonalities.
No matter what culture we belong to, we all have feelings, dreams, ideas, hopes,
fears, and values. Our common humanity transcends many of our differences.

KEY CONCEPTS
Assimilation - occurs when people give up their ways and adopt the ways of the
dominant culture.
cultural relativism - recognizes that cultures vary in how they think and behave
as well as in what they believe and value.

Culture - is a way of life—a system of ideas, values, beliefs, customs, and

language that is passed from one generation to the next and that reflects and
sustains a particular way of life.

Ethnocentrism - is the tendency to regard ourselves and our way of life as

normal and superior to other people and other ways of life.

high-context communication style - indirect and undetailed and which conveys

meanings more implicitly than explicitly.

individualism/collectivism - refers to the extent to which members of a culture

understand themselves as part of and connected to their families, groups, and
cultures.

long term/short term orientation - refers to the extent to which members of a

culture think about long term (history and future) versus short term (present).

low-context communication style - very direct, explicit, and detailed

masculinity/femininity - refers to the extent to which a culture values

aggressiveness, competitiveness, looking out for yourself, and dominating others
and nature, which are typically associated with men) versus gentleness,
cooperation, and taking care of others and living in harmony with the natural
world, which tend to be associated with women.

Multilingual - means they are able to speak and understand more than one
language or more than one group’s ways of using language.

Participation - A final response to diversity is participation, in which we

incorporate some practices and values of other groups into our own lives.

power distance - refers to the size of the gap between people with high and low
power and the extent to which that is regarded as normal.

Resistance - A common response to diversity is resistance, which occurs when

we reject the beliefs of particular cultures or social communities.

respect - allows us to acknowledge genuine differences between groups yet

remain anchored in the values and customs of our culture

social community - Individuals are affected not only by the culture as a whole,
but also by membership in groups outside of mainstream culture
standpoint - is political awareness of the social, symbolic, and material
circumstances of the community and the larger power dynamics that hold those
circumstances in place

standpoint theory - claims that social groups within a culture distinctively shape
members’ perspectives—their perceptions, identities, expectations, and so forth.

Tolerance - A second response to diversity is tolerance, which is an acceptance

of differences whether or not one approves of or even understands them.

uncertainty avoidance -refers to the extent to which people want to avoid

ambiguity and vagueness.

uncertainty reduction theory - explains that because we find uncertainty

uncomfortable, we try to reduce it.

Understanding - Damon’s comment reflects a third response to diversity, which

is understanding that differences are rooted in cultural teachings and that no
cultural teachings are intrinsically best or right.