International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmecsci

Investigation on the compressive mechanical properties of ultra-thick

CFRP laminates
Yu Gao a, b, 1, Jian Wang a, b, 1, Xiaowen Song a, b, Huiming Ding a, b, *, Han Wang a, b, c, YunBo Bi a, b,
Yinglin Ke a, b
a
State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic System, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
b
Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing Technology of Zhejiang Province, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
c
Hangzhou AME Aerospace Manufacturing Equipment, Co, Ltd., Hangzhou 311200, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The damage mechanism of ultra-thick laminates widely used in aerospace and marine industries was obviously
Ultra-thick laminate different from that of thin laminates. However, compression testing and simulation methods were generally
Carbon fibre limited to relatively thin laminates. To explore the compressive failure behavior of ultra-thick laminates, Firstly,
Damage mechanics
a layered pre-compaction scheme was proposed to ensure the curing quality of ultra-thick laminates. A heavy-
Finite element analysis (FEA)
duty compression test equipment (accuracy reached 0.001 mm) was then developed, and a novel compression
Fractography
test method for ultra-thick composite laminates was proposed. The results showed that delamination played a
key role in the failure behavior of ultra-thick laminates. The low interlaminar normal strength of ultra-thick
laminates (55% of the 2 mm thin laminate) led to premature delamination, and wrinkle defects seriously
reduced the compressive strength (11%). The compressive behavior for the matrix-dominant failure specimen
predicted by the Puck criterion was the smallest (0.07%), while Tsai-Wu 3D predicted the smallest error (5.1%)
for the delamination-dominant specimen. Finally, these findings are helpful for the design of ultra-thick com­
posite structures.

1. Introduction assessment of ultra-thick composite structures.

In recent years, compared with traditional metal alloys, the appli­
cation of carbon fiber composites in marine structures and underwater
vehicles has grown rapidly due to their higher specific stiffness, specific
strength, and superior corrosion resistance. For deep-sea submersibles,
the buckling stress of thin shell structures in deep sea environment is
much lower than the static strength of the materials. In order to with­
stand huge hydrostatic pressure, thick composite structures with high
load-bearing become a cost-effective alternative [1–9]. However, as the
thickness increases, the reduced fiber volume fraction and fiber wavi­
ness have negative effect on the compressive properties of the com­
posites. Test results of thick composite cylinders under hydrostatic
pressure showed that failure stress of thick composites is far below the
compressive strength of thin laminates [10–27]. Therefore, a better
understanding of the compressive mechanical behavior of ultra-thick
composites is of particular importance for the design and safety
The compressive failure mechanism of thick laminates differs
depending on the type of layups. The research on compressive failure
modes of unidirectional thick CFRP composite laminates mainly focuses
on kink band fracture [28–31], which is caused by local buckling of the
fibers. The resin first undergoes shear yielding because of the initial fiber
misalignment. Subsequently, the restraint of the fiber bending defor­
mation due to the resin is weakened, the fibers undergo micro-buckling,
which eventually leads to the fracture of the laminate. Unlike thin
laminates, the thickness of thick laminates is much greater than the kink
band width. When the kink band grows, it is more likely to grow in the
vertical direction with a constant angle away from its assumed straight
line due to weaker interfacial properties. Although the compressive
fracture initiation and evolution of thick laminates are difficult to esti­
mate, the initial damage of tends to occur at the free edge of the spec­
imen, and delamination as well as fiber micro-buckling are the dominant
failures mechanism [32]. In contrast, "brooming" fractures are often

* Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic System, School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou
310027, China.
E-mail address: pangding@zju.edu.cn (H. Ding).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2022.107966
Received 4 October 2022; Received in revised form 17 November 2022; Accepted 20 November 2022
Available online 22 November 2022
0020-7403/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

observed in thick multi-directional CFRP laminates [33–39]. Matsuda Table 1

et al. summarized the fracture process of quasi-isotropic carbon fiber Mechanical properties of GW800G/GS-13.
laminates through experiments and simulations. They found that the Elastic properties
initial failure occurred at the free edge of the innermost 0◦ ply due to the
E1[GPa] E2[GPa] G12[GPa] G23[GPa] ν12 ν23
concentration of the out-of-plane shear and compression stresses [34]. 147 9.32 4.53 3.9 Gpa 0.3 0.3
The initial failure behavior of the 12.35 mm thick laminates was Strength properties
observed by Goto et al. in two cases starting from the innermost 0◦ ply XT[MPa] YT[MPa] XC[MPa] YC[MPa] S12[MPa] Failure strain [%]
and the fixed section of the specimen [35]. Tsampas et al. comparatively 2820 60.2 1538 190 125Mpa 0.99
pc⊥‖ pt⊥‖ pt,c v⊥‖f mσf
analyzed the uniaxial compression mechanical behavior of thick
θ ⊥⊥
53◦ 0.25 0.30 0.22 0.2 1.1
quasi-isotropic and [0/90] cross-ply laminates. Delamination and
in-plane shear fracture were the main failure mechanisms. Compared
with the cross-ply laminates, the quasi-isotropic laminate showed
stronger response and higher failure load, but it was also more prone to Table 2
delamination and post-failure damage [36]. CV. Opelt et al. proposed a Test matrix.
new classification for the compressive mode [39], based on the phe­ Specimen code Layup Laying process
nomena observed during the test and the fracture study of the failed 30-A {[45/02/-45/90]11+[45/0/-45/902]6}s AFP laying
specimens (by scanning electron microscopy), the failure modes were 30-C {[45/902/-45/0]11+[45/90/-45/02]6}s AFP laying
divided into four main types: shear failure, interlaminar failure, inter­ 30-C-W {[45/902/-45/0]11+[45/90/-45/02]6}s AFP laying
(Fiber wrinkle)
facial failure and kink band failure. However, the failure mechanism of
ultra-thick laminate has not been uniformly defined and classified.
In fact, the above-mentioned compression failure modes of thick sample design and the 800t high-precision compression test equipment
laminates are all found under specific test methods. At present, the was introduced. Finally, the effectiveness of the test method was verified
widely used composite compression test standards are aimed at thin by experiments.
laminates [40–44]. In contrast, the test methods for ultra-thick lami­
nates have not been widely developed and applied. Different from thin
laminates, the compressive failure load of thick laminate is larger. 2.1. Specimen preparation
Buckling and end fracture of the specimen often occur, resulting in
premature failure of the specimen [40–42]. Therefore, prior to testing, All the specimen materials were GW800G/GS-13 provided by China
the design of the specimen and test fixture should ensure a uniform Weihai Guangwei Composite Materials Co., Ltd., with a single layer
one-dimensional compressive stress field, and careful consideration thickness of 0.18 mm. The properties of the materials were all measured
should be given to the thickness and bonding characteristics of the by the Testing and Evaluation Center for High Performance Carbon Fiber
end-tabs. In addition, the compression test is sensitive to many experi­ of Beihang University. The parameters are shown in Table 1. According
mental parameters, such as specimen geometry, loading method, stress to the bearing characteristics of the underwater vehicle that mainly
concentration, buckling stability, and specimen end crushing. In bears bidirectional loads in the deep sea, {[45/02/-45/90]11+ [45/0/-
response to these problems, Hsiao et al. [41], Componeschi [44], Oga­ 45/902]6} S axial layup and {[45/902/-45/0]11+ [45/90/-45/02]6} S
sawara and Ishikawa [45] and Lee and Soutis [46] developed circumferential layup were designed. The test matrix was shown in
compression test methods suitable for thick composites. However, the Table 2, in which the letter "A" and "C" represented axial and circum­
developed ICSTM test fixture or NAL-II test fixture need to accurately ferential specimens, respectively, and "W" represented specimens con­
control the tightening force of the fixture bolts to ensure that the taining manufacturing defects.
compressive stress is transmitted to the middle area of the sample As shown in Fig. 1(a), all the samples were laid by automatic laying
through a part of the shear stress, which is prone to artificial assembly equipment. In order to ensure the size and shape of the sample and
errors. On the other hand, the uniaxial compression of the ultra-thick eliminate pores, a layered pre-compaction method was used during the
laminate is a structural test rather than material test. The manufacturing process (see Fig. 2(b)). Before formal curing, every 34
length-to-thickness ratio of the samples in these test methods is too layers were laid as a prefabricated unit, and the prefabricated unit was
small, and the measured results are more of the ultimate strength of the placed in an autoclave at 80◦ C, 0.6MPa for 30min. For thicker laminates,
material, while the size effect of the actual structure needs to be the curing process must stay in an autoclave for a long time (80◦ C,
considered during the structure test. Thus, there is a need to develop a 0.6MPa for at least 1h) to distribute the heat evenly throughout the
reliable compression test method for ultra-thick laminates. panel and reduce the possibility of exothermic reactions because ther­
The purpose of the present work is to study the uniaxial compressive mal energy could cause uncontrollable temperature rise inside the
mechanical behavior and failure mechanism of CFRP laminates with a laminate (see Fig. 2(c)). After curing, the Olympus ultrasonic C-scan
thickness of 31.79 mm. Firstly, an 800t high-precision compression test equipment was used to detect the defects of the specimens, as was shown
equipment for composite materials was built, and a new uniaxial in Fig. 2(d), the interlayer compaction was very good without obvious
compression test methods for ultra-thick CFRP laminates was proposed. pore or bubble defects.
Two kinds of specimens with different layups were then prepared by the
AFP technology. The effects of layups and manufacturing defects on the 2.2. New uniaxial compression test method for ultra-thick laminate
compressive properties of ultra-thick laminates were analyzed, and the
evolution mechanism was concluded by observing the fracture surface of 2.2.1. Specimens design
the laminate. Finally, the mechanical behavior and typical failure po­ The size design of the specimen was one of the key factors to ensure
sition of the ultra-thick laminate were predicted using several classical the rationality and scientificity of the test. Firstly, in order to ensure that
failure criteria. the load of the testing machine could be effectively transmitted to the
test area, both ends of the specimen needed to be protected, and suffi­
2. Experimental procedures cient restraint should be provided to avoid end crush. On the other hand,
the gauge length of the specimen L was the most critical parameter, and
In this section, the preparation method and design method of com­ the gauge length L must ensure that the specimen undergoes obvious
posite ultra-thick plate samples were firstly presented, and then the compressive failure before buckling [40].
uniaxial compression test method of ultra-thick laminate including Firstly, the critical buckling gauge length Lbuckle needed to be

2
Y. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

Fig. 1. Manufacturing process of ultra-thick specimens: (a) Process of automated fiber placement (AFP); (b) Process pre-compaction; (c) Process of curing the
specimens; (d) Nondestructive testing including A-scan, B-scan and C-scan.

Fig. 2. (a) Dimensions of the compression specimens; (b) Micrographs of layups at the outer free edges of 30-A and 30-C specimens; (c) 800t high-precision
compression test equipment; (d) Composition of uniaxial Loading unit.

determined. According to the Euler column buckling principle, the shear

0.67kc π 2 EI
deflection caused by transverse shear force of anisotropic material was σ cr ≤ (1)
considered while the cross-section of the specimen was assumed to be AL
rectangular, the ultimate compressive strength σcr must satisfy [47]: where E was the longitudinal Young’s modulus, I was the second-order

3
Y. Gao et al.
Fig. 3. Comparison of Longitudinal strains (Y) and transverse strains (X) of 30-C and 30-A specimens along the surface to the interior of A and B specimens.
bending moment area, A was the cross-sectional area of the specimen,
and kc was a constant reflecting the end support condition. When the
compression specimen had a rectangular cross-section, I = bt3 /12 (b and
t were the width and thickness of the specimen, respectively), then the
critical length Lbuckle of the specimen could be expressed as:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0.67kc E
Lbuckle ≤ πt (2)
12σcr
For muti-directional laminate, kc was assumed to be 5/6, and the
values of E and σcr were shown in Table 1. On the other hand, when the
gauge length was too short, the insufficient load transmission distance of
the testing machine could easily lead to interlaminar failure rather than
compression failure. Thus, the minimum gauge length Lmin could be
expressed as
( )
t σ cr
Lmin ≤ ln t0 (3)
t0 τc
where τcwas the in-plane shear strength. t/t0 was the stress concentra­
tion factor, which was taken as 1.5 here. To satisfy Eqs. (2) and (3) at the
same time, the gauge length L must be within the following interval, and
L was selected 180 mm here.
Lmin ≤ L ≤ Lbuckle (4)
2.2.2. Test fixture and mechanical tests
In this study, both ends of the ultra-thick specimens were restrained
by metal frames. The resin and quartz sand mixture were filled between
the specimen to increase the contact area of the end and prevent the end
from being damaged prematurely. The specific dimensions of the spec­
imen were shown in Fig. 2(a). It could also be seen from Fig. 2(b) that the
ultra-thick laminate had better interlayer compaction after curing. Since
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966
the thickness of the specimen exceeded 30 mm, and the damage load
reached a hundred tons, the existing test platform could not meet the test
requirements. Therefore, an 800t high-precision compression test
equipment was developed, as shown in Fig. 2(c). Different from the
traditional hydraulic control equipment, servo motor was adopted to
drive lead screw movement, and the large load was transmitted to the
end of the specimen through the thrust platform. The control accuracy
reached 0.001 mm. Further, the horizontal level was adjusted through
the Z-direction support platform, as shown in Fig. 2(d). Three-
directional strain gauges were placed on the surface and thickness of
the specimen to monitor the failure process, as shown in Fig. 2(e).
3. Results and discussion
In this section, the uniaxial compression mechanical behavior of the
ultra-thick laminate was first discussed, and then the influence of the
manufacturing process and the layups on the failure mechanism of the
ultra-thick laminates was discussed. The dominant compressive failure
behavior was summarized through the electron microscope analysis of
the fracture surface. Finally, the compressive mechanical behavior of the
ultra-thick laminate was predicted by FEM method.
3.1. Validation of test method
In order to verify the validity of the compression test method, a very
important criterion was whether the specimen was bent or Euler buck­
ling. As shown in Fig. 3, the longitudinal strains (Y) and transverse
strains (X) from the surface to the interior of samples 30-C and 30-A
were extracted by FEM method. The longitudinal strains from the sur­
face to the center of the specimens showed good consistency, while the
transverse strains (X) of the two specimens changed at the thickness of
22 mm, which was mainly due to the selection of two different ply
Y. Gao et al.
Fig. 4. Representative stress-strain curves of strain gauges SG-1, SG-2 and SG-3
for 30-C, and the red and grey lines represent 30-A and 30-C specimen,
respectively.
Fig. 5. Comparison of modulus, compressive strength and failure strain of the
30-C and 30-A specimens.
sequences in this paper. Each ply sequence contains two different ply
blocks, and the strain changes at the ply changes due to the Poisson’s
ratio effect [37]. In fact, for the structural designer, the strain test results
of the two specimens along the longitudinal strains (Y direction) are
more concerned. Therefore, three strain gauges (SG-1, SG-2 and SG-3)
were also arranged on the surface and thickness of the specimen to
monitor whether the specimen was bent. As was shown in Fig. 4, the
monitoring data of the three strain gages were in good agreement for
both the 30-C and 30-W specimens, indicating that the specimen did not
bend.
3.2. Mechanical response
Fig. 5 compared the average values of compressive strength,
modulus and failure strain for various compression specimens. During
the AFP process of ultra-thick laminates, there were laying defects such
as tow gaps and overlaps, resulting in the fiber wrinkle after curing
[48–54]. (For a discussion of the specific reasons, see chapter 3.2.1.) The
wrinkle seriously reduced the compressive strength by about 11%, while
this defect had little effect on the modulus. Compared to the 30-C
specimen, the compressive strength decreased by about 4% despite the
higher number of 0◦ plies for the 30-A specimen. This phenomenon
occurred mainly due to the premature delamination of the 30-A spec­
imen during the compression process, and the gradual inward expansion
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966
of this delamination led to the premature loss of the load-bearing ca­
pacity. Goto et al. [35] used the NAL-II test fixture to perform uniaxial
compression tests on a 12 mm thick T800 quasi-isotropic laminate, and
the compressive strength and failure strain were 605 MPa and 1.3%,
respectively. Although the compressive testing method was different, it
could be inferred that the compressive strength decreased gradually
with increasing thickness.
3.3. Detailed description of failure mechanisms
3.3.1. Effect of manufacturing defects
Fiber wrinkle was a common geometric defect in AFP process, which
was characterized by fiber deviating from the fiber direction designed in
path planning [52,53]. Fig. 6 compared the cross-sections of the two
specimens with and without fiber wrinkle. During the AFP process, the
placement force, temperature, and speed sometimes did not match the
temperature-viscosity profile of the prepreg well, which led to gaps and
overlaps in the tows, resulting in extra-length out-of-plane fiber wrinkle,
see Fig. 6(b). Although fiber wrinkle was also a common defect during
the curing process of thick laminates [53], the out-of-plane fiber bending
due to insufficient curing pressure was avoided because the laminates in
this study were subjected to a hot pre-compression process before formal
curing. The fiber wrinkle was usually characterized by the deflection
angle of the aligned fibers in the reference plane, and for any given
n-layer fiber wrinkle angle θ could be expressed as [54]:
ntply 180
θ = (5)
Lg π
where tplywas the thickness of the single-layer prepreg, Lgwas the lateral
distance between the two symmetrical layers, Lgwas measured to be
5.14 mm here, thus, θ = 4.17◦ .
The stress-displacement curves of the two specimens with and
without wrinkle defects were compared in Fig. 7. The displacement
shown in the figure was the relative displacement of the two ends in the
loading direction, and the point of occurrence for critical damage was
marked on the loading curve. Both specimens exhibited linear me­
chanical behavior in the initial loading stage. As the loading continued,
the specimen with wrinkle defects first suffered shear cohesive failure
between wavy layers. Before reaching the peak load point, delamination
between wavy layers began to flex and expand toward the free edge,
leading to fiber micro-buckling failure of the wavy layers [55,56]. This
micro-buckling failure then expanded from the inside to the outside at
higher compressive stress, eventually leading to a significant drop in
load. Therefore, for the specimens with wrinkle defects, the failure was
mainly dominated by the micro-buckling of the fibers. Compared with
the full brittle fracture of the wrinkled specimens, for the 30-C specimen,
an off-axis split was first observed in the 45◦ layer near the outermost
fixed end, and with a slight load drop. Subsequently, microbuckling of
the 0◦ ply occurred in the intermediate region of the specimen, which
induced matrix shear failure of the 90◦ layer. Finally, the crack propa­
gated from the inside to the outside leading to complete fracture of the
specimen, which was also found in the Ref. [34]. The entire failure
process of 30-C specimen was shown in Supplementary Material 1. For
the 30-C specimen, although the crack propagation was caused by the
internal delamination, the failure was mainly dominated by the internal
matrix shear failure. On the other hand, due to the premature fiber
micro-buckling, the failure stress and strain of the 30-C-W specimen
were far away lower than 30-C specimen.
3.3.2. Effect of layups
Compared with the 30-C specimen, the initial damage of the 30-A
specimen also occurred on the outside, but it was delamination be­
tween the 45◦ and 0◦ layers on the upper and lower surfaces. This
resulted in two slight drops in the compressive load, respectively. Then,
under the combination of high bending stress and compressive stress
Y. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

Fig. 6. Morphology of the ultra-thick specimen without (a) and with (b) fiber wrinkle in the thickness section.

Fig. 7. Stress-displacement curves of 30-C and 30-C-W specimens, and the typical failure behavior of the two specimens was shown at the point where the
load changes.

generated in the outermost layer, delamination occurred in multiple
places along the thickness direction, and the laminate was divided into
multiple sub-layers. Eventually, the crack propagated to the middle re­
gion, resulting in matrix shear failure in the 90◦ layer and fiber breakage
in the 0◦ layer, and the structure lost its bearing capacity (see Fig. 8). The
entire failure process of 30-A specimen was shown in Supplementary
Material 2. Therefore, the failure mechanism of the 30-A specimen was
mainly driven by delamination.
3.3.3. Characteristics of fracture surface
To further investigate the formation mechanism of initial damage
and damage evolution, the fracture surface of the sample was analyzed
by S-3700N scanning electron microscope, as shown in Fig. 9(a). "①"
represented the location of initial damage, and "②" was the location of
crack propagation. For the wrinkled specimen 30-C-W, obvious delam­
ination was first observed inside, and the dominant failure causing the
load drop was microscopic kink-band of the 0◦ layer. The formation
mechanism of this microscopic kink-band was explained in detail in

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Y. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

Fig. 8. Stress-displacement curves of 30-C and 30-A specimens, and the typical failure behavior of the two specimens was shown at the point where the load changes.

Fig. 9. (a) Comparison of SEM images of fracture surface at typical locations for the three kinds of specimens, where "①" represented the location of initial damage,
and "②" was the location of crack propagation; (b) formation mechanism of typical failure modes.

7
Y. Gao et al.
Fig. 10. FE model of thick laminate, showing the cross section of the half of the specimen along the thickness.
Fig. 9(b), the wavy layer underwent obvious bending deformation due to
the action of shear stress, and the high bending stress caused by this
deformation led to fiber fracture.
Compared with the thin laminate, the out-of-plane shear stress of the
ultra-thick laminate along the thickness direction could not be ignored,
and a high stress concentration was generated at the free edge during the
loading process [35]. Although the initial damage of 30-C and 30-A
specimens occurred at the outermost side, the subsequent crack propa­
gation directions were different. For the 30-C specimen, serious matrix
damage occurred in the inner 90◦ layer, and then the cracks gradually
spread from inside to outside. In contrast, the cracks in specimen 30-A
gradually spread from the outside to the inside after delamination
occurred on the outside (see Fig. 9 (b)).
3.4. Prediction of compressive behavior
For ultra-thickness composite components, there is currently no
applicable failure model that can accurately predict their mechanical
properties. Therefore, in order to provide a reference for the design of
ultra-thick composite structures, several classical failure criteria were
used here to predict the in-plane performance of the laminates:
maximum stress/strain [55,56], Tsai-Wu2D/3D [57], Tsai-Hill [58],
Hashin2D/ 3D [59–63,27], Puck [64], and LaRC05 [65], while the
stress-based Ye secondary stress separation criterion [66] was used to
analyze the interlaminar damage. These failure criteria were imple­
mented in ABAQUS by UVARM subroutine because UVARM subroutine
was more suitable for structural engineering analysis or strength pre­
diction in the early stage of structural design, and had a wide range of
application [55]. The GETVRM of UVARM subroutine was used to
obtain the stress and strain information at the material integration point
in the current analysis step, and then the state variable UVARMn (n = 1,
2,3…) of different failure criteria was defined with this information,
where n represented the number of failure modes in the failure criteria.
Once the state variable UVARMn was equal to 1, the structure was
considered to be damaged. As the layup was symmetric, only half of the
sample model was established along the Z direction (see Fig. 10). The
laminate used 8-noded reduced integration solid elements (C3D8R), and
the whole model contained 135,120 elements. One end was fixed, the
other end adopts displacement loading.
3.4.1. Evaluation of mechanical response
Firstly, the stress-strain data at four points on the surface of the
sample were compared with the FEM results. As shown in Fig. 11, the
simulation results were in good agreement with the test results in the
linear segment. The specific values were compared with the test in
Table 3. The moduli predicted by the simulation of the two specimens
had a small error compared with the test, and the error did not exceed
4%. For the 30-C specimen, the strength predicted by the two selected
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966
3D criteria (Tsai Wu 3D and Hashin 3D) was lower than the corre­
sponding 2D criterion, mainly because the 3D criterion considered the
stress state in 3 directions, which led to relatively conservative predicted
results. On the other hand, based on the Mohr-Coulomb model, Puck and
Schuermann distinguished different fracture modes according to the
stress combinations appearing on the detected fracture surface, which
further predicted the matrix failure between fibers. According to the
previous summary, the failure of the 30-C specimen was mainly domi­
nated by the matrix fracture, so the strength value predicted by the Puck
criterion was the closest, with an error of only 0.07%. In contrast, the
strength predicted by the LaRC05 was lower, mainly because LaRC05
took into account the local fiber kinking and splitting caused by the
matrix failure on the basis of the matrix failure predicted by Puck,
making the prediction result more conservative. For the prediction of
failure strain, except for Hashin3D and LaRC05 criteria, the rest of the
prediction errors were not more than 6%.
The eight failure criteria only consider in-plane damage and did not
involve delamination failure criteria. For the 30-A specimen, the failure
was mainly dominated by delamination, so it can be seen from Table 3
that the prediction and test error of compressive strength was large. The
compressive strength predicted by Tsai-Wu 2D/3D was the closest, with
errors of 10.1% and 5.1%, respectively. In addition, for the 30-A spec­
imen, the delamination from the outside to the inside was mainly caused
by the normal stress in the 3 directions, which were considered in the
failure judgment of the 3D criterion compared with the 2D criterion
(S13, S23, S33) on the structure, so the prediction results of the 3D
criterion were closer. For the prediction of failure strain, except that the
error of Puck criterion reached 14%, the error between the other pre­
dicted results and test was not more than 10%.
In general, each failure criterion focused on the evaluation of
different failure modes, so the predicted results were different. For the
30-C specimen, the dominant failure mode was matrix fracture, the
strength and failure strain predicted by the Puck criterion were therefore
the closest. The mechanical behavior predicted by the Tsai-Wu 3D and
Hashin 3D criteria considering the stress state in 3 directions was closer
to that of the 30-A specimen with delamination as the dominant failure
mode.
3.4.2. Evaluation of failure modes
The traditional Tsai-Wu and Tsai-Hill criteria combined the different
fundamental failure mechanisms through only one equation that in­
cludes all stress components. Different from them, the failures of lami­
nates were classified as fiber-dominated and matrix-dominated modes
by Hashin, Puck, and LaRC05 criteria. It could be seen from Fig. 12 that
three failure criteria accurately predicted the initial damage of fiber
fracture in the outermost 45◦ layer of the 30-C specimen, and the fiber
splitting failure of the 45◦ layer was analyzed by the LaRC05 criterion.
On the other hand, the simulation accurately captured the matrix
Y. Gao et al.
Fig. 11. Comparison of the test results and FEM results of the Representative stress-strain curves of four strain gauges (SG-4, SG-5, SG-6 and SG-7) at the outer
surface for 30-C and 30-A specimens.
damage of the inner 90◦ layer and the subsequent 0◦ -layer fiber
breakage, which was consistent with the test. Similarly, for 30-A spec­
imen, the outside matrix damage and the internal fiber breakage that
ultimately resulted in the loss of bearing capacity were all observed by
three failure criteria (see Fig. 13).
In addition to predicting the damage behavior of the ultra-thick
laminate, the interlaminar failure was also a key factor affecting the
mechanical properties. Insertion of cohesive elements was often used to
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International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966
predict the interlaminar failure. However, during the design of large-
thickness composite structures, the number of cohesive elements inser­
ted layer by layer led to a large number of mesh elements in the thick­
ness direction, which seriously reduced the computational efficiency.
Therefore, based on the Ye secondary stress separation criterion, addi­
tional failure criteria were added to the UVARM subroutine to initially
judge the delamination damage position. As shown in Fig. 14(a), the
initial delamination damage positions of 30-C and 30-A specimens were
Y. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

Table 3 inside and outside the laminate respectively, which was mainly because
Comparison of compressive strength, modulus and failure strain predicted by high normal stress S33 generated in the inner and outer 0◦ layers during
different failure criteria with experimental results. deformation (see Fig. 14(b)). Through the out-of-plane tensile test of the
Specimen Failure Compressive strength Failure Modulus ultra-thick laminate (see Appendix A), it was found that the interlaminar
Criteria (MPa) strain (GPa) normal strength of the ultra-thick plate was only 55% of that of the thin
(%) laminate. The main reason for this phenomenon was that the thickness
30-C Test 525.5 1.30 65.9 of the laminate was too large, and the internal heat dissipation effect was
Max stress/ 519.4(1.2%) 1.25 63.9(3.0%) poor during the curing process, resulting in the low interlaminar
strain (4.00%)
strength [67]. Further, as shown in Fig. 14(c), high stress concentration
Tsai-Wu 2D 515.5(1.9%) 1.24
(4.67%) generated in the middle layer and outer side of the inner surface of 30-C
Tsai-Wu 3D 509.7(3.0%) 1.23 and 30-A specimen, respectively. This also verified the "inside-to-out­
(5.38%) side" direction of crack propagation for the 30-C specimen and "out­
Tsai-Hill 512.3(2.5%) 1.23 side-to-inside" for the 30-A specimen mentioned earlier.
(5.38%)
Hashin 2D 512.3(2.5%) 1.24(4.6%)
Hashin 3D 440.7(16.3%) 1.18(9.2%) 4. Conclusions
Puck 529.3(0.07%) 1.30(0%)
LaRC05 490.2(6.7%) 1.2(7.7%)
The uniaxial compression mechanical behavior and failure mecha­
30-A Test 504.5 1.00 75.4
Max stress/ 603.5(19.6%) 1.10 72.7(3.6%)
nism of 31.79 mm ultra-thick composite laminates were studied by
strain (10.00%) means of experiments and numerical simulations. The effects of layups
Tsai Wu 2D 555.7(10.1%) 0.98 and manufacturing defects on the compressive properties of ultra-thick
(2.00%) laminate were compared and analyzed, and the failure evolution
Tsai Wu 3D 530.4(5.1%) 0.96
mechanism was summarized by observing the fracture surface of ultra-
(4.00%)
Tsai Hill 591.9(17.3%) 1.08 thick specimens.
(9.00%) A heavy-duty compression test equipment was developed, and the
Hashin 2D 602.5(19.4%) 1.08 control accuracy reached 0.001 mm. Further, a uniaxial compression
(8.00%)
test method for ultra-thick composite laminates was also proposed.
Hashin 3D 582.3(15.4%) 1.03
(3.00%)
The fiber wrinkle defect seriously reduced the uniaxial compressive
Puck 621.3(23.2%) 1.14 strength by about 11%, but had little effect on the modulus. Delami­
(14.00%) nation played a key role in the compressive failure behavior of ultra-
LaRC05 598.5(18.6%) 1.09 thick laminate. Due to the premature delamination, the compression
(9.00%)
strength of axial specimens with larger modulus was lower than that of
Note: The value in () represents the deviations between FEM and Test. circumferential specimens with lower modulus, which decreased by
about 4%. The failure of the axial specimens expanded from outside to
inside, which was dominated by the lateral lamination, while the crack
propagation of the circumferential specimens was from inside to outside
due to the internal matrix fracture.

Fig. 12. Comparison of typical failure behavior locations for the 30-C specimen predicted by different failure criteria (Hashin, LaRC05 and Puck) and test results.

10
Y. Gao et al. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966

Fig. 13. Comparison of typical failure behavior locations for the 30-A specimen predicted by different failure criteria (Hashin, LaRC05 and Puck) and test results.

Fig. 14. Prediction of delamination location showing (a) distribution of normal stress S33 (b) and contours of maximum principal stress on the inner surface of 30-C
and 30-A configuration.

The error between the simulation and experimental results of
compression modulus was less than 4%. For the circumferential speci­
mens with matrix-dominant failure, the strength predicted by the Puck
failure criterion was the closest, with an error of only 0.07%. For axial
specimens where delamination dominated failure, the Tsai-Wu 3D cri­
terion prediction the closest, with an error of 5.1%. On the other hand,
the large out-of-plane normal stress S33 inside the ultra-thick laminate
was the main cause of delamination, and the interlaminar normal
strength of the ultra-thick laminate was only 55% of that of the 2 mm
thin laminate.
The test method and results of ultra-thick laminate proposed in this
study can provide guidance for the testing of deep-sea composite ultra-
thick structures, and the results predicted by various failure criteria can
provide a theoretical basis for the design. Further research can be carried
out on how to suppress delamination and improve the interlaminar
normal strength of ultra-thick laminates.
Supplementary material
Supplementary Material 1. Video of failure process of 30-C specimen

11
Y. Gao et al.
Fig. A1. (a) Set-up for through-thickness tensile test showing the crack path (b)
and the fracture surface of the ultra-thick laminate (c).
Table A1
Comparison of test results between thin laminate and ultra-thick laminate.
Out-of-plane strength (MPa)
Thin laminate 53.3
Ultra-thick laminate 29.8
Supplementary Material 2. Video of failure process of 30-A specimen
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Yu Gao: Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Writing – original draft. Jian Wang: Writing – review & editing.
Xiaowen Song: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Visual­
ization. Huiming Ding: Resources, Writing – review & editing. Han
Wang: Formal analysis, Validation, Project administration. YunBo Bi: .
Yinglin Ke: Project administration, Resources.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work
was supported by the Science Fund for Creative Research Groups of
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51821093) and the
Key Research and Development Plan of Zhejiang (No. 2020C01039).
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2022.107966.
Appendix A. Through-thickness tensile test of ultra-thick
laminate
The out-of-plane tensile test of the ultra-thick laminate was designed
according to the ASTM D7291 standard [68]. In order to ensure that the
fracture of the specimen occurred in the middle region, the "Spool"-­
shaped specimen in the standard was used. The specimens were bonded
to the two end tabs using an adhesive film (J272B, supplied by Q-SHY
Company, China) with a thickness of 0.1 mm. Binding fixtures and
positioning fixtures were used to ensure the coaxiality of the tab block
and the specimen after bonding. To better capture the crack
12
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences 241 (2023) 107966
propagation, white paint was applied to the surface of the specimen [69,
25]. Finally, the assembled specimen was connected to an Instron5985
universal testing machine with a loading speed of 0.1 mm/min (see
Fig. A1). It was observed that the smooth horizontal delamination
appeared in the middle plane of the specimen, and there was no phe­
nomenon of migration (see Fig. A1(b)). The failure mode of debonding
and fiber fracture coupling appeared on the cross section (see Fig. A1
(c))). On the other hand, it could be seen from Table A1 that the
out-of-plane tensile strength of the ultra-thick laminate decreased by
about 44% compared with that of the thin laminate.
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