Taylor Trapani

Principles of Natural Resource Management - Fall 2022

December 16, 2022

Bringing back the Tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) through nest box use

ABSTRACT
Nesting site availability is more important than ever for the Tree Swallow (Tachycineta
bicolor) (Rognan & Leonard / Cornell Lab of Ornithology 2022). In order to aid in this, 3 12” x
6.5” x 7” nest boxes were crafted and installed at 8 feet within a small detention basin on
Livingston campus at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. With these boxes, we
hope to achieve our goal of providing a safe, and suitable environment for the Tree Swallow
pairs and future broods which arrive in the area around May and leave by July (McCarty 2001).
By encouraging their presence, we ultimately intend on facilitating a control on flying insect
populations during the summertime months within the Rutgers Ecological Preserve (RUEP), use
the sensitivity of Tree Swallows as environmental indicators and overall improve the educational
value of the RUEP for years to come.
INTRODUCTION
Of the multitude of bird species found within the Americas which are known to keep pest
insects in check is the tree swallow (Tachycineta bicolor) which spends its breeding season in
the Northern most regions of the United States and Canada (McCarty 2001). It is during this time
that established nesters feast almost exclusively on an insectivorous diet, keeping insect
populations in check and wetland ecosystems healthy (McCarty 2001). Since 1966 however,
tree swallow populations, along with many other aerial insectivores throughout North America,
have seen a cumulative decline of over 30%, something that is all too noticeable with the
overabundance of flying insect numbers increasing over summer months yearly (Rognan &
Leonard / Cornell Lab of Ornithology 2022). Although there are many theories as to what the
most influential stressor placed on the tree swallow population may be, it is clear that a
culmination of anthropogenic factors as well as nesting site availability and safety has been
playing a big role in contributing to the taxa’s full return (Figure 1) (McCarty 2001). Most
crucially, resource availability combined with the presence of safe, suitable nesting sites has
become harder to find for tree swallow pairs both early and late within the nesting season.
Tree swallows are cavity nesters by design and prefer to nest in high hollows of standing
dead trees or old woodpecker created cavities (Rognan & Leonard / Cornell Lab of Ornithology
2022). Due to such a specific nesting constraint, limitations as to time of year and accessibility
are a race against the biological clock. Early tree swallow pairs begin breeding in May with late
pairs breeding near September due to the shortage in nesting availability (McCarty 2001). As
long-distance migrators who typically start their journey mid-summer during July, these late
breeding pairs are at a detrimental disadvantage, often being forced to use unsafe nesting sites
with damaging consequences. Pairs which breed later are less successful in producing a viable
clutch for that year and are even more likely to get killed themselves due to an increase in
competition with neighboring sparrow species which are extremely territorial (Finch 2006). It is
for this reason that the importance of offering new nesting site locations is realized with boxes
which are essentially “move in ready” and fit to the suitability of the tree swallow’s needs. In a
study conducted by Shutler et al. (2012) it was found that nesting boxes were preferable over
natural cavities by tree swallows while Norris et al. (2018) found a positive correlation between
an increase in clutch survival rates and choice in nest boxes. With this in mind, methods towards
tree swallow attraction through the use of man-made nesting boxes near areas of open fields and
open water have been on the rise with positive results. It is with these nesting boxes being so
precisely tailored to the birds needs that it is quickly becoming a preferred safe haven for not
only the tree swallow but other insectivorous bird species across the board (Shutler et al. 2012).
The overall objective of this project was to increase tree swallow attraction to the Rutgers
Ecological Preserve by providing arriving swallows with the appropriate resources they require
to raise healthy broods as well as to increase the educational value of Rutgers ecological
elements. In order to accomplish this, 3 suitable nesting boxes were constructed and installed
within the stormwater detention basin off of Avenue E on Livingston Campus. With an increased
presence of tree swallows, there is the long-term goal of improving the encompassing
ecosystem’s health and diversity with the benefit of controlling flying summertime nuisance
insects such as flies and mosquitoes.

METHODS
The first consideration which had to be made was in regard to nest box dimensions and
materials. To accomplish this, an easy-to-follow construction plan was found online through the
Sialis organization’s website (Smith 2022). A single board of untreated 1” x 10” x 6’ kiln-dried
whitewood wood was used to make a single nest box. It was first used to map out each of the 7
piece’s measurements and was then subsequently cut using a circular saw for further
7
construction. Two inch ventilation holes were drilled into the piece which would act as a side
8
3
for the box while a larger, 1 inch entrance/exit hole was cut in the piece which would act as the
8
front panel. Inside, 3 4-inch ladder-like cleats were additionally nailed into the front panel of
wood leading up to the entrance/exit hole so that fledglings would be able to effectively make
their way out of the nest box when ready (Finch 1990). All pieces of the box were then secured
together using a nail gun, making sure not to have any protruding nails inside. To complete the
box, the side opposite the ventilation holes had a door installed using two hinge nails so that
interior inspections could be made and cleaned after the birds had left for the season. In the end
the box was measured to be 12” x 6.5” x 7”. In the end, 3 nest boxes were crafted (Figure 2).
 In order to conduct our intended study, a stormwater detention basin (40 31’ 19” N, 74
26’ 26” W) was selected and located off of Avenue E on Livingston Campus, Rutgers University
in New Brunswick, New Jersey (Figure 3). Initial considerations needed to be made in spacing
between boxes as well as in relation to the approved site zone and direction as this particular area
is located between the forested edge of the Rutgers Ecological Preserve and Avenue E but
importantly, contains a small year-round water supply that is safe for tree swallow use. Since
preplaced flags were on site to mark installation locations of each box, ground level
measurement approximations were not needed. After having a proper location to set up, nest
boxes were then transported to the site. 8-foot PVC poles plus metal predator baffles were
provided and also found to be on site on arrival. Before placing the poles in the ground, each nest
box was attached towards one end of the pole, being sure to leave approximately 4 inches for
perching and territorial guarding. Preplaced flags marked locations for nest box installation and
ranged anywhere from 28 feet to 8 feet from the central water source. Nest box 1 (40° 31' 19.89"
N, 74° 26' 26.41" W) was installed 50 feet from nest box 2 (40° 31' 19.47" N, 74° 26' 26.72" W)
and 70 feet from nest box 3 (40° 31' 19.80" N, 74° 26' 27.30" W). Nest box 2 was approximately
57 feet from nest box 3. All 3 nest boxes were oriented in a Southeast direction in order to suit
both early and late nester’s needs (Ardia et al. 2006). Metal predator baffles were also installed
halfway up the poles. Future monitorization and upkeep of the boxes will occur periodically by
university staff as well as by student volunteers at the Ecological Preserve.

RESULTS
Pre-management, the area of interest on Livingston campus has a thriving plant
community consisting of a variety of knee-high grasses along with a shallow body of water
(Figure 4). As we enacted this plan during the winter of 2022, there is no further management on
the area itself which needs to be done and results are not to be expected until next year’s nesting
season from May to September. This does require monitoring of the site in order to ensure the
proper data is collected and that the nest boxes are being used. With this in mind, results of what
are to be expected can be followed primarily through literature accomplished by other
researchers and their findings.
A prime example which stands out and greatly mirrors our project’s efforts was
accomplished in British Columbia, Canada where researchers studied the reproductive output
and successful fledges of Tree Swallows who nested in natural tree cavities versus those who
chose to nest in man-made boxes from 2001 to 2003 (Norris et al. 2018). In this experiment, 20
sampling sites were utilized with 100 nest boxes, which were constructed in a similar fashion.
Natural cavity nests were not promoted to birds by researchers, and instead were found
organically at the beginning of each monitoring period in 19 out of the 20 sites. Over the course
of the study, five fecundity characteristics were prioritized as date of first egg laid, clutch size,
brood size, hatch day, and fledgling success. These set the boundary of what was to be measured
during the 2-year study. Ultimately, it was found that not only did female Tree Swallows actively
seek out nest boxes, but that nest boxes produced a greater reproductive advantage than natural
cavities (Norris et al. 2018). More specifically, researchers found that eggs were laid and hatched
around the same time frames between nesting sites however, female tree swallows in boxes laid
larger clutches than those in tree cavities. This was later hypothesized by the authors to be
correlated to interspecific competition for limited space which led to later nesting dates and that
tree cavity entrances were much smaller than box entrances. Boxed nest site pairs yielded overall
greater hatchling success rates and saw at least 93.4% of those hatchlings fledge. Tree cavity
nesters experienced a slightly lower hatchling success rate and only saw at least 35.8% of
hatchlings fledge. Further investigation done found that nest failure seemed to be commonly
correlated with depredation. The authors results found that the proper installation of nest boxes
offers a larger, more successful reproductive advantage over tree swallows which nest in tree
cavities (Figure 5).
With the promising data collected in British Columbia, we strive to achieve similar
results, albeit on a much smaller scale Our intended result is to attract breeding Tree Swallow
pairs to Rutgers University, and more importantly, to our managed site. With a water source
comes the intention of attracting flying insects for Tree Swallows to feast upon. It is with this
that our second purpose of attracting Tree Swallows can be understood. As an indicator species,
we plan on applying the Tree Swallow’s voracious insectivorous appetite to not only decrease
summertime bug populations near the Rutgers Ecological Preserve and on Livingston campus,
but to also manage the health of the preserve itself. If there are any contaminants present within
the preserve or Buell Brook for instance, then the nesting Tree Swallows will begin to show it
(Kraus 1989). If this is evident in any case, it will then be easy to trace any contamination or
pollutants to the waterways as the insects on which the Tree Swallows feed on primarily spend
their larval stage in the water, absorbing and thus, bioaccumulating any trace elements which
wash in into adulthood (McCarty 2001).

DISCUSSION
Our management project followed what was described in the original proposal. Since
results cannot be measured yet, it is from the point of installation on that the process of future
management and monitoring begins. Moving forward, it has been recommended that weekly
visual site checks should be conducted starting in April to ensure that House Wrens (Troglodytes
aedon) are not moving in before Tree Swallows do in May (Finch 1990). If this becomes the
case, there is a likely chance that the nest box is being used primarily as a dummy nest for male
House Wrens and so Tree Swallows will avoid the area as the two species are territorially
competitive (Finch 1990). Dummy nests, in these cases, will need to be removed. If Tree
Swallows are beginning to interact with the boxes come May, caution should then be taken in
approaching the nest box when possible as to avoid any potential disruptions to the nesting pair.
There are no studies which correlate human interaction with nesting success or failure, but there
is still always the threat of the pair abandoning the box in fear of safety. Continual monitoring
should be continued weekly with interventions as needed in the case of predator presence. If
there must be a nest box check, then the side door panel can be carefully opened so that the
interior contents can be reached. Parent Tree Swallows will sound alarm calls and swoop but are
very unlikely to attack (Smith 2022). Late nesters should also be taken into consideration, and so
late September is the recommended month to stop monitoring (Smith 2022). Once there are no
signs of birds visiting the boxes, old nesting material will need to be. Studies have shown that
Tree Swallows will avoid using nest boxes which contain old material as it promotes parasitic
insect populations, such as Bird Fleas (Ceratophyllus idius), which does result in an increase in
clutch mortality (Rendell 1996). If all of these steps are taken, future monitors of the site should
note that a successful criterion should be measured predominantly in the usage of the box by
Tree Swallow pairs during the May to September time period as well as in the successful
fledging of Tree Swallow chicks. If there is a notable difference in flying insect populations
during the monitoring period, then that should be counted as an additional success although this
may be harder to quantify and may take multiple summers of monitoring to notice.

SUMMARY & CONCLUSION

The overall objective of this project was to create a suitable nesting habitat for next
year’s Tree Swallow pairs. This was completed by constructing Tree Swallow nest boxes and
installing them at a proper location for future use, which in our case was the detention basin on
Livingston Campus at Rutgers University in New Jersey. Minor objectives are to control insect
populations, improve ecosystem health, as well as bring light to the current plight of the species
along with other insectivorous birds. To investigate its success properly, monitorization of the
nest boxes either by university staff or volunteer students will need to occur from May to July or
until September. Although quantitative success cannot be analyzed until next summer, there is
still the lasting effect of what these nest boxes will represent for years to come. Throughout the
bulk of this project, many people have become more interested in what this assessment entailed
as it was discussed. To me, this is an early victory in the educational front which will hopefully
give insight to further aid in the species recovery. When the Tree Swallows do return from their
wintering locations in early May, we hope that their stay at Rutgers University will be a safe and
prosperous one with the boxes we have provided.
FIGURES

Figure 1. Climate change’s effect on Tachycineta bicolor’s geographic location, primarily

focused on the New Jersey area (Kaufman 2022).

Figure 2. Completed nest box labeled “Nest Box 3” installed on PVC pole on site.
Figure 3. Google Earth image of site in relation to Avenue E and Orange Trail of the Rutgers
Ecological Preserve with labeled nest box installation points.

Figure 4. Onsite picture taken in the Southeast direction of the retention basin area before nest
boxes were installed.
Figure 5. Tree cavity nester success was compared to nest box nester success over a two-year
study conducted in British Columbia, Canada. Mean clutch sizes were significantly larger
amongst nest box pairs including the number of chicks which hatched and fledged. Julian hatch
days (mean hatch days) varied slightly amongst both cavity nesters and nest box nesters between
2002 and 2003 which was hypothesized to be due to climate changes by researchers. Error bars
represent standard errors calculated within the mean (Norris et al. 2012).
References
Ardia, D. R., Pérez, J. H., & Clotfelter, E. D. (2006). Nest box orientation affects internal
temperature and nest site selection by Tree Swallows. Journal of Field Ornithology,
77(3), 339–344. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1557-9263.2006.00064.x
Finch, D. M. (1990). Effects of predation and competitor interference on nesting success of
house wrens and Tree Swallows. The Condor, 92(3), 674.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1368686

Kaufman, Kenn. “Tree Swallow (Tachycineta Bicolor).” Audubon: Guide to North American
Birds, 2022, https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/tree-swallow.

Kraus, M. L. (1989). Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in pre-fledgling tree

swallows,Tachycineta bicolor. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology,
43(3), 407–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01701876
McCarty, John. (2001). Use of tree swallows in studies of environmental stress. Reviews in
Toxicology. 4. 61-104.
Norris, A. R., Aitken, K. E., Martin, K., & Pokorny, S. (2018). Nest boxes increase reproductive
output for tree swallows in a forest grassland matrix in central British Columbia. PLOS
ONE, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204226

Rognan, Cameron, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, et al. “Climate Change Affects Size of Tree
Swallows.” Cornell Chronicle, 2022, https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2022/10/climate-
change-affects-size-tree-swallows#:~:text=Currently%20tree%20swallows%20are
%20common,North%20American%20Breeding%20Bird%20Survey.

Rendell, Wallace B. “Old Nest Material in Nestboxes of Tree Swallows: Effects on Reproductive
Success.” The Condor, vol. 98, no. 1, 1996, pp. 142–152., https://doi.org/10.2307/1369517.

Shipley, J. Ryan, et al. “Selection Counteracts Developmental Plasticity in Body-Size Responses

to Climate Change.” Nature Climate Change, vol. 12, no. 9, 2022, pp. 863–868.,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01457-8.

Shutler, D., Hussell, D. J., Norris, D. R., Winkler, D. W., Robertson, R. J., Bonier, F., Rendell,
W. B., Bélisle, M., Clark, R. G., Dawson, R. D., Wheelwright, N. T., Lombardo, M. P.,
Thorpe, P. A., Truan, M. A., Walsh, R., Leonard, M. L., Horn, A. G., Vleck, C. M.,
Vleck, D., … Stanback, M. T. (2012). Spatiotemporal patterns in nest box occupancy by
Tree Swallows across North America. Avian Conservation and Ecology, 7(1).
https://doi.org/10.5751/ace-00517-070103
Smith, Elizabeth Zimmerman. 2022. Sialis.org, Woodstock CT. Retrieved from Sialis online:
http://www.sialis.org
APPENDIX: DATA DOCUMENTATION AND ARCHIVING
Student Names: Taylor Trapani, Daniel Zhang & Lilah Katz Date: Dec 16, 2022
Fall 2022 – Principles of Natural Resource Management 11:216:217
Objectives:
The primary objective was to research, observe, and construct suitable nesting boxes for
breeding Tree Swallows (Tachycineta bicolor). The area of interest was a selected water
retention basin on Livingston Campus outside of the Rutgers Ecological Preserve (RUEP) at
Rutgers University’s New Brunswick campus in New Jersey. Future monitoring of the site from
May to September will be conducted in order to collect data regarding the presence and health of
visiting T. bicolor. This information will be used to determine T. bicolor presence and success
within the RUEP.
Management Action Taken or Monitoring/Survey:
Description:
Using untreated whitewood, panels were cut and put in place using nails to create a 12” x 6.5” x
7” nesting box. 3 boxes were made overall and were mounted on site using 8-foot PVC poles.
The plot where installation took place was measured via Google Earth and was estimated to be
approximately 6,222 ft2 of land. Nest boxes were attached to the PVC poles and placed according
to pre flagged zones. In the center of the plot was a small body of standing water which will act
as a watering hole and attract insects as a food source for any nesting Tree Swallows in the area.
The installed poles ranged anywhere from 28 feet to 8 feet from the water to take flooding
hazards into consideration while boxes ranged anywhere between 70 feet and 30 feet from one
another as to discourage any territorial disputes. All three boxes faced a Southeast orientation in
order to aid in box temperature regulation.
Weekly monitoring by either Rutgers University staff or volunteers should be taken from May
until September when late nesting pairs leave for migration. During the monitoring period, data
regarding how many of the 3 boxes are being used, when the first pair moves in, when a pair
moves out, when fledglings leave, how many fledge and if any predation or territorial disputes
occur should be collected. This is mainly targeted at a hands-off approach so as to not disturb
nesting Tree Swallows and chicks. If activity within the box is limited or completely absent, care
should be taken, and the box should be investigated. Regardless, at the end of the monitoring
period, each box should be emptied out and sanitized thoroughly with soap and water to
minimize parasite infestations.
Nest Box Installation GPS Coordinates:
GPS Coordinate system: Degrees Minutes Seconds (ddd° mm' ss.s")
Degrees, Minutes, Seconds
Box Number Longitude Latitude
1 74°26'26.41"W 40°31'19.89"N
 2 74°26'26.72"W 40°31'19.47"N
3 74°26'27.30"W 40°31'19.80"N

Maps/Photos:

Figure 1: Google Earth photo with positions of labeled nest boxes 1 – 3.

Photo 1: Onsite picture taken in the Southeast direction of the retention basin area before nest
boxes were installed.

1
2
3

Photo 2: Picture of all 3 nest boxes taken in the Southern direction.

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