CHAPTER IV

LOCAL AND
GLOBAL
COMMUNICATION
IN MULTI
CULTURAL
SETTINGS
 "Unity in Diversity", can serve as
a shining light for the future
ahead.

LEARNING PURPOSES

By the end of the lesson, you will have been able to:

a. Discuss how to communicate with the intercultural people.

b. Apply the guidelines in intercultural communication to achieve effective
communication in the intercultural setting.
c. Determine the high context culture and low context culture in the cross cultural
setting.
d. Explain the different language registers spoken or written to be utilized in the
various communication settings.

WARM UP TIME

Look at the following pictures. Identify the language registers to be (that are ) used on
(in) the different communication settings.

1. ____________________________________

2. _____________________________________

3. _____________________________________
 4. ____________________________________

5. ____________________________________

In communication, globalization would mean the increase in the social

connectedness or the expansion of the one’s social community and the multicultural
reliance on peoples and nations; the evolution of a language that could be understood
by most countries, and the development of global communication skills or the ability
to send messages across cultures through the four macro skills (e.g. speaking,
listening, reading, and writing and the use of non-verbal communication. Developing
one’s global communication skills can lead to cultural diversity.

Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Setting

Communication is guided by culture and context. It is predicted by the type of culture

dictated by its context. Culture is manifested in our actions and affects how we tell the world
who we are and what we believe in. It is also the basis for how we behave in a certain
communication context.  The context of communication brings a better understanding about
culture in general and our own culture in particular.  Context was conceptualized by Edward
T. Hall, a cultural anthropologist, is anything that refers to the stimuli, environment, or
ambiance surrounding an event.   Our notion of context leads us to be better able to adapt to a
multicultural perspective of communication. 

Local communication is highly grounded in the cultural context. This context of

communication reflects the culture of people who are creating their self-identity in the
community. On the other hand, global communication has turned out to be a modifying factor
of local communication. It attempts to bring changes that affect communication conventions. 

The increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world requires the study of
intercultural communication, a discipline that focuses on how culture affects communication.
Intercultural communication concerns the ability to understand and value cultural differences.
It considers the context of communication where people from different cultural backgrounds
interact and underscores the wide range of communication processes and problems that
naturally appear within the social context. 

Language is a cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding.  How

language is used, and its non-verbal forms are decoded based on culture. Hence, enhancing
oral and written communication intercultural environments is a way of achieving intercultural
competence. 
Barriers to Intercultural Communication

Some people do not know about other cultures, and some do not want to know. There is
no doubt that both ignorance (lack of knowledge) and naivete (lack of sophistication) can be
important barriers to intercultural communication.

In this section, we will briefly consider   ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, and

discrimination. The barriers because it is constructed around a judgment made before any
communication takes place that then biases the communication that follows.   These
too become challenges in a multicultural setting.

1. Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism believes that one's own cultural group’s behaviors, norms, ways of
thinking, and ways of being are superior to all other cultural groups. Ethnocentrism is not to
be confused with patriotism, which is devotion to one's country.  Ethnocentrism carries
devotion to the extreme point where you can not believe that another culture’s behaviors,
norms, ways of thinking, and ways of being are as good or as worthy as your own. It becomes
a barrier in intercultural communication when it prevents you from even trying to see
another's point of view - that is when it hampers all attempts at empathy.

2. Stereotyping 

Stereotypes are oversimplified or distorted views of another race, another ethnic

group, or even another culture. They are simply ways to categorize and generalize from the
overwhelming amount of information we receive daily. The problem with stereotypes is that
whether they are positive or negative, once they are established, it is difficult to remove them.
Sometimes they exist in our subconscious; these are even more difficult to discard because we
are less aware of them. We tend to pick up information from our environment that supports
the stereotypes rather than denies them. This simply embeds them more deeply. To remove
them, we must first recognize them, and then we must obtain individual information that will
counteract them.

3.  Prejudice

Prejudice is negative toward a cultural group based on little or no experience. The

difference between stereotypes and prejudices should become apparent in this example: When
Chris was young, his parents told him never to go into the city because Mexican gangs ruled
the city streets at night. Chris, of course, then had the preconceived notion that all Mexicans
were bad people. From this stereotype, Chris formed a prejudice against Mexicans. The
stereotypes told him what a group (Mexicans) was like; the prejudice told him how to feel
about the group. All this changed when Chris worked for the city to help pay his way through
college, and almost all his co-workers were Mexicans. Their attitude toward Chrish as well as
their behavior, quickly changed the stereotype and altered his prejudice.

4. Discrimination

Discrimination is the overt actions one takes to exclude, avoid, or distance oneself
from other groups. Discrimination takes stereotypes and prejudice one step further-to action,
whether overt or covert. You can discriminate against someone subtly by slightly turning
away your body when in a conversation, or by avoiding eye contact with them. You can
discriminate against people by hurling verbal insults at them. You can discriminate, too, by
using physical violence, systematically eliminating the group from which the individual
comes, or even in extreme cases by using genocide, as when autocratic tyrants  exterminate
racial or national groups. Yet another form of discrimination occurs when you exclude others
from jobs or from other economic opportunities. Obviously, discrimination can be
interpersonal (when you do it against another person, collective when a number of individuals
or a group perform the discrimination), or institutional (when a business or industry chooses
not to serve a particular group of people).

For accurate communication to occur, sender-receivers must be operating from the

same perceptual point of view. This is usually not a problem when we are interacting with
people from our race or culture; however, when we communicate with someone from a
different race or background, we must realize that this person will be operating from an
entirely different point of view. (Hybels and Weaver, 2018).

Still, according to Hybels and Weaver (2018), sometimes in an intercultural

communication situation with a person different from us, we may interpret the other person as
abnormal, weird, or simply different. It is essential to learn to control the human tendency to
translate “different from me” into “less than me.” Instead, we need to raise questions. Are
there effective ways of dealing with different kinds of people? Can I develop a repertoire of
five or six approaches that will help me to each other in real and meaningful ways?

A. Engage in mindfulness

Mindfulness means paying attention to what is going on in the present moment

without judgment. To do this, you must trust your direct and immediate experience. Second,
you must show patience and willingness to observe and describe (perhaps intrapersonally
only) what is happening without bias. You simply throw yourself into the present moment
and glean wisdom through the trial and error of learning by direct experience. Third, you must
take what is, as is,” in other words, accept whatever it is that the universe serves up. It means
accepting life on life's own terms, regardless of your feelings about it, and (using SF)
discovering effective strategies to cope with and eventually appreciate whatever is happening.

Few people live mindfully. They don't meet each moment of life as it presents itself,
with full awareness, and allow their judgment to fall away. Not only do they turn out
judgment about themselves and others, but they do a number of things at the same time
(multitasking); get caught up in feelings about the past or future; avoid any uncomfortable
thoughts, feelings, or situations; and disconnect from what is happening right in front of them.
If this description fits the way they live, it is easy to see why mindfulness is seldom practiced
and is so important. Its value is that because it is an instant of pure awareness before they
conceptualize, identify, focus their eyes or mine on, objectify, clamp down on it mentally,
segregate it from the rest of existence, or think about it in any way, it reminds them of what
they should be doing, helps them see things as they really are, and assists them in seeing the
deep nature of what it is they are about to examine.

B. Pay Attention to your Words and Actions

It is only through you are thoughtful communication with others that you become
aware of your own thinking pattern, assumptions, perceptions, prejudices, and biases. When
students come to Cruz-Janzen’s classes expecting to learn how to communicate with
nonwhites, she tells them they are first going to study themselves, their gender, and racial,
ethnic, cultural, socioeconomic, and physical (ability, disability, and appearance)
socialization. Cruz-Janzen has a very clear motive in this: “As long as whites continue
expecting others to explain themselves, whites or setting themselves as the norm, the normal
ones, against whom all others must be judged and measured.

C. Control your Assumptions

An assumption is taking for granted or supposition that something is a fact. You can
learn from generalization about other cultures, but those generalizations turn sour when you
use them to stereotype or oversimplify.

D. Engage in Transpection
 
Instead of assuming a process, most people begin quickly, naturally, and often
subconsciously- take a moment to relax and reflect. Transpection is the process of
emphasizing across cultures.

“Achieving transpection trying to see the world exactly as the other person sees it is a
difficult process. It often involves trying to learn foreign beliefs,    foreign assumptions,
foreign perspectives, and foreign feelings in a foreign context.  Transpection, then, can only
be achieved by practice and requires structured experience and self-reflection.

Striving to word transpection can help you avoid assumptions and move you closer to
tolerance, sensitivity, respect, emphatic listening, and effective communication responses.
Listen carefully to others, understand their feelings, be interested in what they have to say and
sensitive to their needs, and try to understand their points of view.

E. Gain Knowledge
 
The greater your cultural and linguistic knowledge, and the more your beliefs overlap
with those from other cultures, the less likelihood for misunderstandings. You need to read,
observe, ask questions, and visit places where there are people from different races and ethnic
backgrounds. When Madison found out her new roommate was from Saudi Arabia, she
immediately worried because of what she'd heard in the media about Saudi terrorists. She
went online to find out more about the country -customs, traditions, religion, and anything
else she could discover. The words Saudi Arabia produced over 11 million websites using
online resources as The World Factbook, Saudi Arabia Information Resource, Saudi
Newspapers, and The Lonely Planet World Guide; Madison strove toward transpection to
help herself avoid assumptions. Gain experience. You cannot learn how to be a good
communicator by reading, observing, asking questions, or doing research on the internet. But
gaining experience doesn't require making actual visits to foreign countries or foreign
cultures. Find an individual of another culture, and asked if the two of you could have a
conversation about intercultural communication. With that as your focus, ask some pointed,
specific questions designed to help you better understand him or her and others of the same
culture.
 
There are other ways to gain experience in intercultural communication - to obtain a
broader worldview. Frequent ethnic restaurants, watch world news in addition to local news,
read books written by authors from other countries, learn another language, and when
countries with which you are unfamiliar or mentioned, find them on a map. Listen to world
music, rent foreign films, and travel- whether in person or through videos. Your local library
has dozens of videos on foreign countries. But don't just observe. Converse with people of
other cultures. Take part in cultural celebrations that differ from your own. You volunteer to
serve on communities, teams, or groups in which members of other cultures will be serving.
Listen, engage, and keep asking questions. Take time to understand what people believe about
child-rearing, educational opportunities, world politics, and life. How you learn about
intercultural communication will depend on your willingness to find it out. You will see that
the knowledge and understanding you gain is well worth any effort you put forth. 

hat is intercultural communication?

Intercultural communication 

It is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between people from different

cultural backgrounds. Basically, 'inter-' is a prefix that means 'between' and cultural
means… well, from a culture, so intercultural communication is the communication
between cultures. Sometimes, this is used to describe a single person trying to interact
in a foreign environment but more often, it is a two-way street, where people from
both cultures are trying to improve their communication.

Now, if you want to learn about intercultural communication, it's important to

understand this. But it's also important to understand what it isn't. Intercultural
communication is targeted at allowing for positive and productive interaction. You are
not joining this culture; you are not becoming a member of another society; and you
are not abandoning your own culture. That would be assimilation and that's not what
we're after.

Intercultural communication is also not merely a language proficiency.

Communication requires the ability to understand language, but just think about how
much of your communication with even your own friends is nonverbal: our body
language, attitudes, the rituals from hand-shaking to the stink eye. Some researchers
estimate that up to 93% of all human communication is nonverbal, although according
to recent studies, it's actually closer to 60%.

Still, that means that more than half of communication is never spoken. So,
intercultural communication is going to take a lot more than just learning a language.

A Starting Point for Intercultural Communication

A desire for intercultural communication starts from the point of view that
communication is better if it is constructive, and does not suffer from
misunderstanding and breakdowns.

Effective intercultural communication is a vital skill for anyone working

across countries or continents, including those working for multinational companies
either in their home country or abroad (expatriates).

It is also crucial for anyone working with people from other cultures to avoid
misunderstanding and even offense. Those studying languages often encounter issues
of intercultural communication.

Knowledge for Intercultural Communication

Key areas of knowledge to improve intercultural communication are:

  Some knowledge of cultures, or organizations and institutions, history, and
general way of living in different communities and nations.
 Recognition that these aspects affect behavioral norms. For example, there is
considerable history between the Greeks and Turks, and therefore it may be
considered potentially a problem to serve Turkish food to a Greek person.
 An understanding of how culture can affect communication and language. For
example, people from Nordic countries are often said to speak more directly
than native English speakers who use more “polite” language. Scandinavians
in the UK have reported offending to English people by failing to say “please”
and “thank you” enough.
 Some understanding of the conventions that may govern behavior in certain
specific intercultural environments, such as views on the role of women, or the
license (or otherwise) permitted to children.
 Crucially, awareness of your own and other people’s beliefs and values, and a
willingness to recognize when these may clash.
 Sensitivity towards cultural stereotypes that may affect and interfere with
intercultural communication.

Some Useful Starting Points for Intercultural Communication

 Demonstrate your willingness to meet others at least halfway by learning

a few phrases in their language
This is easy if you know that you’re going on holiday somewhere, but it’s also
essential for expatriate assignments and other business trips. A few phrases,
even if it’s only “Good morning, good evening, and thank you, will go a long
way.

 Talk to people who know the culture about common taps and problems
Before you go, find people who know the region to which you’re traveling,
and ask their advice. Ask your co-workers what people commonly do that is
‘wrong’, or what problems they have encountered, and learn from it. Listen
carefully to their answers, including what they don’t say as this can tell you a
lot.

 Adapt your behavior and don’t always expect others to adapt to you
This includes not being offended if someone unwittingly does something that
you find difficult to accept. You don’t have to take it, but its best to explain
politely why you find it hard, not just go off in a sulk.

 Check your understanding and that of others

The best way to avoid misunderstandings is to listen carefully and check
understanding regularly in the course of conversion. Ask questions to make
sure that you have understood, and ask others to recap what you have said to
ensure that they have understood you.

 Don’t be afraid to apologize

You can usually see quite quickly if you have caused offense. The fastest way
to manage that is to apologize and ask what it was that you did. A confession
 of total ignorance will often go a long way to the mitigate offense. Ignoring it
will offend further.

 Use local television to learn about behavioral issues and norms

You wouldn’t want to rely on television dramas as your only source of
information, but they can provide useful insights. For instance, the UK
Coronation Street or East Enders could give you an idea of what’s considered
acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Comedies are perhaps less reliable as
they often use communication difficulties to generate laughs.

 Reflect on your experience

As with so many aspects of life, a little reflection about your experience can
help you put it in context, especially if you can discuss it with someone else in
a similar position.

CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Cross-cultural communication has become strategically important to

companies due to the growth of global business, technology, and the Internet.
Understanding cross-cultural communication is important for any company that has a
diverse workforce or plans on conducting global business. This type of
communication involves understanding how people from different cultures speak,
communicate, and perceive the world around them.

Cross-cultural communication in an organization deals with understanding

different business customs, beliefs, and communication strategies. Language
differences, high-context vs. low-context cultures, nonverbal differences, and power
distance are major factors that can affect cross-cultural communication.

Let's take a look at Jack is a manager at a New Mexico-based retail

how cross-cultural conglomerate. He has flown to Japan to discuss a potential
differences can partnership with a local Japanese company. His business
cause potential contact, Yamato, is his counterpart within the Japanese
issues within an company. Jack has never been to Japan before, and he's not
organization. familiar with their cultural norms. Let's look at some of the
ways that a lack of cultural understanding can create a barrier
for business success by examining how Jack handles his
meeting with Yamato.

High- vs. Low-Context Culture

The concept of high- and low-context culture relates to how an employee's

thoughts, opinions, feelings, and upbringing affect how they act within a given
culture. North America and Western Europe are generally considered to have low-
context cultures. This means that businesses in these places have direct,
individualistic employees who tend to base decisions on facts. This type of business
person wants specifics noted in contracts and may have issues with trust.

High-context cultures are the opposite in that trust is the most important part
of business dealings. There are areas in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa that can be
considered high context. Organizations that have high-context cultures are collectivist
and focus on interpersonal relationships. Individuals from high-context cultures might
be interested in getting to know the person they are conducting business with to get a
gut feeling on decision making. They may also be more concerned about business
teams and group success rather than individual achievement.

Jack and Yamato ran into some difficulties during their business negotiations. Jack
spoke quickly and profusely because he wanted to seal the deal as soon as possible.
However, Yamato wanted to get to know Jack, and he felt that Jack spoke too much.
Yamato also felt that Jack was only concerned with completing the deal for his own self-
interest and was not concerned with the overall good of the company. Jack's nonverbal
cues did not help the negotiations either.
The list below shows the kind of behavior that is generally found in high and
low context cultures within five categories:
 how people relate to each other,
 how they communicate with each other,
 how they treat space,
 how they treat time, and
 how they learn.
One thing to remember is that few cultures, and the people in them, are totally at one
end of the spectrum or the other. They usually fall somewhere in between and may
have a combination of high and low context characteristics.

HIGH CONTEXT (HC) LOW CONTEXT (LC)

Association  Association

 Relationships depend on trust,  Relationships begin and

build up slowly, are stable. One
distinguishes between people
inside and people outside one's
circle.
 How things get done depends on
relationships with people and
attention to group process.
 One's identity is rooted in
groups (family, culture, work).
 Social structure and authority are
centralized; responsibility is at
the top. Person at top works for
the good of the group.
end quickly. Many people can be
inside one's circle; circle's
boundary is not clear.
 Things get done by following
procedures and paying attention
to the goal.
 One's identity is rooted in
oneself and one's
accomplishments.
 Social structure is decentralized;
responsibility goes further down
(is not concentrated at the top).

Interaction Interaction

 High use of nonverbal  Low use of nonverbal

 elements; voice tone, facial
expression, gestures, and eye
movement carry significant parts
of conversation.
 Verbal message is implicit;
context (situation, people, and
nonverbal elements) is more
important than words.
 Verbal message is indirect; one
talks around the point and
embellishes it.
 Communication is seen as an
art form—a way of engaging
someone.
 Disagreement is personalized.
One is sensitive to conflict
expressed in another’s nonverbal
communication. Conflict either
must be solved before work can
progress or must be avoided
because it is personally
threatening.
Territoriality
 Space is communal; people
stand close to each other, share
the same space.
Temporality
 Everything has its own time.
Time is not easily scheduled;
needs of people may interfere
with keeping to a set time. What
is important is that activity gets
done.
 Change is slow. Things are
rooted in the past, slow to
change, and stable.
 Time is a process; it belongs to
others and to nature.
Learning
 Knowledge is embedded in
elements. Message is carried
more by words than by
nonverbal means.
 Verbal message is explicit.
Context is less important than
words.
 Verbal message is direct; one
spells things out exactly.
 Communication is seen as a
way of exchanging information,
ideas, and opinions.
 Disagreement is depersonalized.
One withdraws from conflict
with another and gets on with the
task. Focus is on rational
solutions, not personal ones. One
can be explicit about another's
bothersome behavior.
Territoriality
 Space is compartmentalized and
privately owned; privacy
is important, so people are
farther apart.
Temporality
 Things are scheduled to be
done at particular times, one
thing at a time. What is
important is that activity is done
efficiently.
 Change is fast. One can make
change and see immediate
results.
 Time is a commodity to be spent
or saved. One’s time is one’s
own.
Learning
 Reality is fragmented and
 the situation; things are
connected, synthesized, and
global. Multiple sources of
information are used. Thinking is
deductive, proceeds from general
to specific.
 Learning occurs by first
observing others as they model
or demonstrate and then
practicing.
 Groups are preferred for learning
and problem solving.
 Accuracy is valued. How well
something is learned is
important.
compartmentalized. One source
of information is used to
develop knowledge. Thinking is
inductive, proceeds from specific
to general. Focus is on detail.
 Learning occurs by following
explicit directions and
explanations of others.
 An individual orientation is
preferred for learning and
problem solving.
 Speed is valued. How efficiently
something is learned is
important.

On-verbal Differences

Gestures and eye contact are two areas of nonverbal communication that are
utilized differently across cultures. Companies must train employees in the correct
way to handle nonverbal communication as not to offend other cultures. For example,
American workers tend to wave their hands and use a finger to point when giving
nonverbal direction. Extreme gesturing is considered rude in some cultures. While
pointing may be considered appropriate in some contexts in the United States,
Yamato would never use a finger to point towards another person because that gesture
is considered rude in Japan. Instead, he might gesture with an open hand, with his
palm facing up, toward the person.

Eye contact is another form of nonverbal communication. In the U.S., eye

contact is a good thing and is seen as a reflection of honesty and straightforwardness.
However, in some Asian and Middle Eastern cultures, prolonged eye contact can be
seen as rude or aggressive in many situations. Women may need to avoid it altogether
because lingering eye contact can be viewed as a sign of sexual interest. During their
meeting, Jack felt that Yamato was not listening to his talking points because Yamato
was not looking at Jack in the eyes. However, Yamato did not want Jack to think he
was rude, so he avoided looking directly into Jack's eyes.

Language Differences

The biggest issue of dealing with cross-cultural communication is the

difficulty created by language barriers. For example, Jack does not speak Japanese, so
he is concerned with his ability to communicate effectively with Yamato. There are
some strategies that Jack can use to help establish a rapport with Yamato. Jack can
explain himself without words by using emotions, facial expressions, and other
nonverbal cues. He can also use drawings and ask for an interpreter.
Why is it important to use appropriate varieties and registers of language in
certain communication context?

According to an article written by Gleaner, we have six language registers:

formal, casual, intimate, private, frozen, and consultative. These registers can be used
depending on the situation and people we encounter. It is essential to use appropriate
varieties and registers of language in certain communication contexts because people
call for different registers in different situations. It shows the level of formality and
informality of the language used. When we use appropriate varieties and register of
language, we’re showing respect, interest, comfortableness, and professionalism.

However, we have different approaches in language register when it comes to

face-to-face conversation and in the written mode. We characterized face-to-face
conversation as multi-modality because we can use different registers. We considered
the status, position or way of living of the person we’re communicating with to know
when and where to use or drop the formality. While in writing a paper we commonly
use the formal register since the construction of sentences, correction of grammar and
appropriate use of words really matter.

V ARIETIES AND
LANGUAGE
REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN

Language Registers

Register refers to the perceived attitude and level of formality associated with
a variety of language. The relationship between the writer’s attitude and the variety
chosen is very important in the study of written language. In face to face speech, the
listener can easily interpret the attitude of the speaker by examining the speaker’s tone
of voice, facial expressions and overall body language. This is not possible in writing.
The writer has to use specialized features of discourse to convey or mask attitudes. It
is then the reader’s responsibility to correctly interpret the writer’s attitude, tone and
level of formality. Language Registers range on a scale from most formal to most
informal. The five levels identified have been given specialized names by Linguists;
frozen, formal, consultative, casual and intimate.

Frozen Register
Definition Examples
This is considered as the most formal a. national pledge
register because the use of language is b. national anthem
fixed and relatively static and it c. school creeds
does not require any feedback. d. formal ceremonies
e. pledge of allegiance to the country,
f. preamble to the constitution
g. religious services
h. The Lord’s Prayer

Formal Register
Definition Examples
Formal English is required in this a. court proceedings
language because it is used in official and b. business meeting
ceremonial settings. The language used c. swearing-in ceremony,
in these settings is comparatively rigid d. interview
and has a set, agreed-upon vocabulary e. professional writing
that is well documented. In other words, f. business correspondence
the language used is often of a standard g. reports
variety. h. official speeches
i. announcements
j. technical writings
Consultative Register
Definition Examples
The language used is specifically for a. superior and subordinate conversation
seeking assistance, soliciting aid, b. doctor and client consultation
support, or intervention. In the setting, c. lawyer and client consultation
one person is deemed an expert, and the d. teacher and student conversation
other person is the receiver of such e. employer and employee conversation
expertise.
Informal Register (Casual)
Definition Examples
The language is very relaxed and a. Writing to friends
conversational, which focuses on getting b. Family conversations
the information. The language uses c. Chat with people you know very well
slangs, jargons, and contractions. d. Personal e-mails
e. Phone texts
f. Short notes
g. Blogs (diary on website)
h. Diaries
i. Journals
Intimate Register (Intimate)
Definition Examples
This is the language used between a. lovers having special terms of
persons who share a close relationship or endearment.
bond. This register would take into b. mothers giving pet names to their
account certain terms of endearment, children based on some character trait
slangs or expressions whose meaning is c. best friends formulating slangs based
shared with a small subset of persons. on some shared past experience.

Varieties of Spoken and Written Language

Lin (2016) presents the following nature of language variations as prescribed by

most linguists based on the ideas of Manhoob (2014).

1. Language varies when communicating with people within (local) and outside
(global) our community.
2. Language varies in speaking and writing.
3. Language varies in everyday and specialized discourses.
 Manhoob (2014) identifies eight (8) different domains in which language
varies depending on the combinations of different values on the three dimensions of
the context of communication. The first four (4) domains include the variations that
reflect local usage done in one local language or multiple local languages depending
on the context. They vary in the following ways:

Local everyday written

This may include instances of local everyday written usage found in the
neighbourhood posters. For example, a poster looking for transients/bed spacers.
1. Local everyday oral
This may occur in local communication among neighbors in everyday,
informal and local varieties of languages.
2. Local specialized written
An example of local specialized written usage can be found in the publications
and
websites of local societies.
3. Local specialized oral
It involves specialized discourses. For example, in a computer shop in the
neighbourhood, specialized local usage can be found. This is when specialized
computer game-related vocabulary is used.

Meanwhile, the other four domains involve global usage. These four domains
of language differ from the first four domains since they refer to contexts of language
usage where participants need to communicate with people not sharing their local
ways of using language. These are as follows:

1. Global everyday written

This variation avoids local colloquialism to make the text accessible to wider
communities of readers. This can be found in international editions of
newspapers and magazines.

2. Global everyday oral

This may occur in interactions between people coming from different parts of
the world when they talk about everyday casual topics.

3. Global specialized written

It expands to as many readers internationally hence the non-usage colloquial
expressions. An example of this is the international research journal articles
published.

4. Global specialized oral

This occurs when people from different parts of the world discuss specialized
topics in spoken form. For instance, when there are paper presentation
sessions in an international academic conference.

LANGUAGE (DIALECTAL) VARIATION

1. Language Variation or Dialectal Variation

This refers to changes in language due to various influences. These
include, social, geographic, individual and group factors.
2. Dialect
This refers to the variety of language characteristic of a particular group of
people in a given speech community (country) or region. For example, one may
refer to a Caribbean dialect as there are certain vocabulary items and sentence
structures that Caribbean countries have in common.

3. Creole
There is no definition of creole that is accepted by all. The meaning of the
word creole has changed considerably over the years. However, it is normally
used to refer to a dialect or language which results from contact between the
language of a colonizing people and the language of a colonized people. In the
Caribbean, Creole languages are as a result of contact between English, French,
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch (languages of the colonizers) and West African
languages (languages of the colonized).

4. Patois
This is a word of French origin which translates most closely, in French, to
mean gibberish. It was a word used to describe how foreign and strange Creole
languages sounded to the European languages speakers. Patois is used to refer to
a geographical dialect which differs from the standard language spoken in a
given country. In Jamaica, for example, the word patois is used to refer to the
English based creole spoken. Patois carries the usual negative associations and
lack of prestige, which characterize non-standard, rural or regional dialects.

5. Standard Variety (eg, English, French)

This is the variety of language or dialect that is used for formal, official
and education purposes. It is also used as an instrument for mass education and
communication causing it to acquire greater prestige and uniformity. (Creoles
have been observed to lack uniformity as a result of not being standardized.)
Most Caribbean countries have a European language as its standard variety for
formal, official purposes and a Creole language for informal communication
amongst native, family, and friends. The notable exception is Haiti, where the
French Creole was made an official language alongside French.

6. Slang
This is a popular, fashionable use of words and phrases, which may be
either old words given new meaning or completely new words. In the same way
that fashion changes, so do slang expressions. Slang is a normal part of everyday
speech but may not be acceptable in certain formal settings. When used in formal
writing, in particular, these expressions should be put in inverted commas (For
e.g, wicked- Jamaican slang for good/amazing, off the chain-American slang for
exciting/good).

7. Foreign English
This refers to varieties of the English language spoken by persons not from
one country.

8. Rasta English
 This refers to a special variety of English indigenous to Jamaica, spoken
by a religious group of persons called Rastafarians. This variety differentiates
itself from standard and non-standard English by use of different, specialized
vocabulary items. The psychology of no contradiction extends to all aspects of a
Rastafarians life, including language. Hence because it sounds contradictory for
oppress -/up-res/ to mean held down in life, Rastafarians refer to this verb as down
press. Likewise, instead of participation -/part-icipation/ to mean being fully
involved they refer to this noun as full ticipation. The language is also
characterized by the use of I to signify positivity and the importance of the
individual in relation to another, so instead of You and I, Rasta would refer to us
as I and I to signify that we are both equal in importance. Irie, refers to a good
vibe and Ital food refers to food considered good for the body (i.e, Vegetarian
based food).