SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF DRILLING PARAMETERS AFFECTING

TORQUE, DRAG AND HYDRAULICS USING SOFTWARE

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

By

RAYAVARAPU NIKHIL RAJ

(15021A2629)

Under the guidance and Supervision of

Shri P. V. N. Rao
Programme Director, Petroleum Courses

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING AND

PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KAKINADA (A)
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY KAKINADA
KAKINADA – 533003
2019
 DECLARATION

I, RAYAVARAPU NIKHIL RAJ, hereby declare that this project entitled

“SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF DRILLING PARAMETERS AFFECTING
TORQUE, DRAG AND HYDRAULICS USING A SOFTWARE” is original and
has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree to similar work.

Place: Kakinada
Date: 26/04/2019 (R. Nikhil Raj)

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled “SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF

DRILLING PARAMETERS AFFECTING TORQUE, DRAG AND HYDRAULICS
USING A SOFTWARE” submitted by RAYAVARAPU NIKHIL RAJ (15021A2629)
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in
Petroleum Engineering, is a bonafide work carried out by him.

P. V. N. Rao Prof. K. V. Rao

Project Supervisor, Programme Director,
Programme Director, Petroleum Courses
Petroleum Courses

Dr. D. Linga Raju

Head, Department of PE & PCE

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my profound sense of gratitude to guide P. V. N. Rao,

Programme Director, Petroleum Courses, Department of Petroleum Engineering and
Petrochemical Engineering for his skilful guidance, timely suggestions and
encouragement in completing this project.

I acknowledge my sincere thanks and heartfelt gratitude to Prof K. V. Rao,

Programme Director, Petroleum Courses, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
Kakinada for being an inspiring source throughout the four years of my study and also
being a good support to achieve our aims, guiding us to choose the right path.

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Dr. D. Linga Raju, Head
of the Department, Department of Petroleum Engineering and Petrochemical
Engineering for encouraging and motivating to complete this work successfully.

I express my special thanks to our beloved Principal, Dr. P. Subba Rao for
providing necessary facilities to carryout the project.

Also, I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Shri Arvind

Morbale, Executive Director, EOA Kakinada and P. M. K. Kumar, DGM Drilling,
EOA Kakinada and also Satish Kumar, AEE Drilling for providing required
information and permission to use software to complete this work successfully.

I am also very thankful to all other engineers of ONGC EOA Kakinada for
helping me complete this project and also, I am grateful my parents for their support,
enduring love, affection and encouragement throughout my studies.

R. NIKHIL RAJ

15021A2629

iv
 CONTENTS

S.NO TITLE PAGE NO

DECLARATION ii
CERTIFICATE iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF TABLES viii
ABBREVIATIONS ix
NOMENCLATURE ix
1 Introduction 1
2 Literature Review 3
2.1 Overview 3
2.2 Sensitivity Analysis 3
2.3 Torque and Drag Analysis 3
2.4 Hydraulic Analysis 3
3 Torque and Drag Fundamentals 6
3.1 Torque and Drag Theory 6
3.1.1 Drag 6
3.1.2 Torque 6
3.2 Factors affecting Torque and Drag 7
3.2.1 Drill string and BHA 7
3.2.2 Well path and profile 7
3.2.3 Dogleg Severity 8
3.2.4 Contact Surface 8
3.2.5 Drilling Fluid 8
3.2.6 Formation effects 9
3.2.7 Hole Cleaning 9
3.3 Buoyancy factor 10
3.4 Friction 11
4 Torque and Drag Models 13
4.1 Johancsik torque and drag model 13
4.2 Sheppard model 14
5 Torque and Drag Analysis 15
5.1 Overview 15
5.2 Drill String Components 15
5.3 Drill Pipe Selection 16
5.3.1 Heavy Weight Drill Pipe 17
5.3.2 Drill Collars 17
5.3.3 Stabilizer 19
5.3.4 Crossover subs 20

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 CONTENTS (Contd.)

5.4 Drill String Properties 21

5.5 Drill Pipe Properties 22
5.6 Friction 22
5.6.1 Friction calibration 23
5.7 Drag in the string 25
5.7.1 Drag while tripping out 25
5.7.2 Drag while tripping in 25
5.7.3 Impact of rotation of speed on drag 26
5.8 Problems exceeding makeup torque 26
5.9 Impact of rotation speed on torque 26
5.10 Radius of rotation 27
6 Hydraulics Analysis 28
6.1 Overview 28
6.2 Rheology 28
6.3 Types of flow 29
6.4 Hole cleaning 29
6.4.1 Flow rate 30
6.4.2 Rheological properties 30
6.4.3 Cutting density, size and shape 30
6.4.4 Fluid density 31
6.4.5 Rate of penetration 31
6.4.6 Hole Angle 31
6.4.7 Hole Eccentricity 31
6.5 Bit Optimization 31
6.6 ECD 32
6.7 Drilling Fluids 32
7 Torque, Drag and Hydraulics Analysis on Software 33
7.1 Torque and Drag outputs 33
7.1.1 Fixed depth plots 34
7.1.2 Roadmap plots 36
7.2 Analysis of outputs of Torque and Drag 38
7.3 Hydraulic outputs 41
7.3.1 Hole cleaning plots 42
7.3.2 Pressure and ECD plots 43
8 Analysis of Torque, Drag and Hydraulics in Well Plan 45
software with case study
8.1 Torque and Drag analysis 46
8.2 Hydraulics analysis 50
9 Conclusion 53
BIBLIOGRAPHY 54

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 ABSTRACT

The first wells drilled in the oilfield were essentially vertical wells. Torque and drag
analysis was not required when drilling this type of well as it involved lowering and
picking up long, heavy strings of steel components. Knowing the buoyed weight per
foot and the length of each section of the string was enough to calculate hook loads for
the rig and tensile loads for the string components. For deviated holes, directional
drilling, and horizontal wells, friction has become a pronounced challenge to drilling,
completing, and working over wells. As the modern day extended reached wells are
going longer and more complex, the torque and drag is one of the restraining aspects for
achieving the target depth. Torque and drag becomes a precarious issue, for example it
can be difficult to land the completion string. Therefore, understanding the friction in
the wellbore and how it effects hook load and torque is essential for well path design in
planning phase as well as real time monitoring analysis and post analysis. In planning
phase, the offset well torque and drag profiles will be used for better well planning. In
real time monitoring the torque and drag roadmaps will be used as the well is drilling in
order to warn us about upcoming potential drilling problems. In post analysis the torque
and drag profiles will be analyzed in order to optimize the well path and drill string
design of new wells in the same area.

The objective of this study is to perform a sensitivity analysis on different parameters

that affect torque and drag in drilling wellbores. The parameters that will be investigated
in this project are those which are place of negotiation among individuals; in a way that
some of them believe the effect of such parameters are negligible whereas some have
opinion that effects of these parameters must be taken into account. These parameters
are:
• Extra friction due to sheave.
• Friction due to hydrodynamic viscous drag force.
• Effect of weight on bit (WOB) on torque.
• Mud properties.
• Wellbore Deviation.

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 LIST OF TABLES
S. NO CAPTION PAGE NO
5.1 Component types to create the string 17
5.2 Typical Friction Factors 26
8.1 Pumps Description 49

LIST OF FIGURES
S. NO CAPTION PAGE NO
3.1 Friction in a deviated well 6
3.2 Torque to rotate the drill string 7
3.3 Differential Sticking in shale formation 9
3.4 Cuttings accumulation in ERW 10
3.5 Buoyancy effects 10
3.6 Forces on a block sliding on an inclined plane 11
3.7 Static and dynamic friction 12
4.1 Forces acting on drill string element during pickup 14
5.1 Heavy Weight Drill Pipe 19
5.2 Flex type 20
5.3 Spiral type 20
5.4 Straight Blades 21
5.5 Spiral Blades 22
5.6 Crossover Subs 22
5.7 Drill String Components box 23
5.8 Drill pipe catalog 24
5.9 Friction Calibration plot in Well Plan software 26
5.10 Drag while tripping out 27
5.11 Drag while tripping in 27
6.1 Relationship of shear stress to shear strain 31
7.1 Torque and drag outputs 35
7.2 Effective tension plot 36
7.3 True tension plot 37
7.4 Analysis tab on Well Plan software 40
7.5 Hydraulics outputs 44
8.1 The Effective Tension Plot 50
82 Torque Plot 50
8.3 Tripping out plot 51
8.4 Friction Calibration Plot (tripping in) 51
8.5 Friction Calibration plot (tripping out) 52
8.6 String Analysis 52
8.7 Minimum Flow rate vs depth plot 53
8.8 Cutting bed height vs depth plot 53
8.9 Cutting bed height vs depth plot at 720 gpm 54
8.10 Cutting height behaviour when booster pump is used 54
8.11 Hydraulics Summary 55

viii
 ABBREVIATIONS
BHA: Bottom Hole Assembly

ECD: Equivalent Circulating Density

ERW: Extended Reach Wells

MWD: Measuring While Drilling

RIH: Running in Hole

ROP: Rate of Penetration

Inner

RPM: Rotations Per Minute

WOB: Weight on Bit

TFA: Total Flow Area

NOMENCLATURE

𝐴𝑖 : Cross-sectional area
𝐴𝑜 : Outer cross- sectional area
E: Sheave efficiency
𝐷𝑠 : Diameter of string
𝐷𝑤 : Diameter of wellbore
𝐹𝐷 : Drag force
𝐹𝑓 : Friction force
𝐹𝑁 : Normal or Side force
𝐹𝑡 : Axial tension acting at lower end of string
∆𝐹𝑡 : Increase in tension over length of element
r: Characteristic radius of drill string element
∆𝐿: Length of segment
𝛽: Buoyancy factor
𝜇: Friction coefficient
𝜌: Density
𝜃: Inclination
𝜎: Tension

ix
 1. INTRODUCTION
As the modern-day drilling is getting longer and longer, the drill string torque and
drag is one of the restraining aspects for achieving the target depth. Torque and drag
models are used in the planning phase but also in real time drilling to evaluate the
problems if any encountered during drilling. For this purpose, it is very important to use
the models that are accurate and to know their limitations. There are number of
parameters that can affect the torque and drag profiles. The hydrodynamic viscous drag
effect is one of the important factors which affect the torque and drag. The torque and
drag models that are used in industry are mostly based on Johancsik’s model (Johancsik,
1984), presented in 1984. There might be no robust model available that can determine
the exact effects of hydrodynamic viscous drag on torque and drag. With the advances
of drilling techniques and technology, and with the increasingly challenging wells that
are drilled, the use of engineering torque and drag software has become a common place.
The Well Plan software is used as a predictive tool to determine if drilling and
completing a well is even possible. The software can be used to determine which strings
will give the greatest chance of successfully reaching total depth and completing the
well, and to model the forces that the string will endure while downhole.

Drillers rely upon surface values such as hook load, surface torque, and surface
pressure readings to understand what happens downhole. Even with downhole tools that
send information back to the surface, the majority of drillers have very little information
about what is happening downhole. Torque and drag modelling allow us to see the forces
within the string below the surface to provide drilling and completions engineers a much
better understanding of how to plan their operations.

The Well plan software Torque and drag outputs can be used to predict the torque and
axial forces generated by drill strings, casing strings, or liners while running in, pulling
out, sliding, backreaming and rotating in three-dimensional wellbore. The effects of
mud properties, wellbore deviation, weight on bit (WOB) and other operational
parameters can be studied.

The information in this chapter is useful for understanding data requirements,

analysis results, as well as the theory used as the basis for the analysis. The Well plan
software can be used to model pressure losses across the circulating system of the rig
and the string, estimate the equivalent circulating density (ECD) across the annular

1
space, and analyze formation cuttings transport and the effect on pressure and ECD
calculations. Five rheological models are available, temperature effects, critical fluid
velocities, eccentricity, pipe roughness, back pressure are all considered because these
drilling hydraulic parameters are inter related and affect each other, designing
hydraulics can be very complicated.

The hydraulics design must be able to clean the hole by maximizing flow rates while
remaining within the pressure limits of the rig surface equipment, pumps, drill string
and downhole equipment, open hole and casing pressure. Hole cleaning is usually
directly related to the flow rate and drilling fluid properties. Rate of penetration is
usually directly related to the bit nozzle sizes. PDC bits are an exception where a specific
flow rate is required for acceptable rate of penetration, rather than hydraulic horsepower.

The flow rate and pressure drop requirements of downhole tools must also be met for
components such as:

• Bit - optimize bit nozzle velocities, hydraulic horsepower and impact force, and to
clean the bit.

• Mud pulse telemetry systems - must transmit data through the fluid column.

• Drilling motors - must operate within the optimum pressure drop and flow rates.

Designing complex well string operations requires rigorous analysis to define the
key aspects of each pipe-related operation in the wellbore. Determining the appropriate
rig and equipment specifications, string components, and fluid properties and
parameters to drill safely and efficiently are just a few of the challenges the drilling
engineer must address. To navigate these challenges, users require software that can
manage this complexity and provide a wealth of scientific capabilities while at the same
time being simple. Well Plan software developed by Halliburton is the most widely
used software.

2
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents a brief literature review that presents on Sensitivity Analysis of
Drilling parameters affecting torque, drag and hydraulics, which must be done in order
to drill faster without safety considerations, studied by a few researchers.

2.1 Overview

WellPlan software is the latest evolution in more than 25 years of innovations in well-
construction information solutions. WellPlan extends and simplifies the science through
dramatic advancements in ease-of-use and data visualization. Integrated with Engineer’s
Desktop (EDT) and Engineer’s Data Model (EDM) applications, it provides a complete well
engineering software tool kit that is unparalleled in the industry.

2.2 Sensitivity Analysis

WellPlan provides a powerful method of performing generalized sensitivity analysis.

Instead of performing manual iterations or running several analyses one at a time, users
can define a range of values for the numeric variables wanted and perform the analysis
simultaneously. Detailed graphical representations enable a quick review of the different
alternatives.

2.3 Torque and Drag Analysis

Plan and analyze drilling, casing, and completion running operations, and assess the
impact of predicted loads related to torque and drag. The main calculations are tension,
torque, side force, fatigue, and tri-axial stress. A top-down analysis mode uses surface
parameters to accurately understand forces acting along the string to the bottom of the
well. It also accounts for the effect of hydraulic parameters such as fluid properties, flow
rates, diverse fluid columns and pressures. Temperature effects on the string also are
considered for pipe stretch calculations. Riser less and inner-string configurations are
modelled, as well as the effect of stand-off devices such as centralizers and friction
reducers. Soft, stiff or hybrid string models can be used for the analysis.

2.4 Hydraulic Analysis

This module can be used to model pressure losses across the rig’s circulating system
and pipe string, estimate equivalent circulating density (ECD) across the annular space,

3
and analyze formation cuttings transport and its effect on pressure and ECD
calculations. Temperature effect is also considered using four different rheological
models, fluid compressibility, Fann Viscometer readings at different temperature points,
critical fluid velocity, and bit-nozzle size calculations for optimized rate of penetration.
The module considers string eccentricity effect, pipe roughness, returns to sea floor for
dual-gradient operations and backpressure for underbalanced operations.

Torque and drag modelling originally started by the works of Johancsik et al., (1985).
Because of the simplicity and being user friendly, his work has been extensively used
in the field and industry applications. Johancsik assumed both torque and drag are
caused entirely by sliding friction forces that result from contact of the drill string with
the wellbore. He then defines the sliding friction force to be a function of the normal
contact force and the coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces based on
Coulomb’s friction model. He wrote the force balance for an element of the pipe
considering that the normal component of the tensile force was acting on the element
contributing to the normal force. This is not the case for a straight section, like in hold
section.

Later Sheppard et al. (1987) put the Johancsik’s model into standard differential form
and integrated the mud pressure that acts upward when the drill string is running inside
hole. In other words, he put effective tension instead of true tension and defined the
effective tension as the sum of the true tension and mud pressure. He used this concept
and showed that an under-section trajectory could have reduced friction compared to a
conventional tangent section. He also suggested that to put torque and drag into two
categories separately: one caused by poor hole conditions and improper mud weight and
the other associated with the well path.

Brett et al. (1989) used the Johancsik model for a field case and based on the model
a well was first planned and then it was used to monitor hole conditions by back-
calculating apparent friction coefficients through the whole well interval and sections
with large increase in the friction factor. The friction factor can express the fact that a
problem is existing in the wellbore which could be either to hole geometry (e.g.,
inclination and azimuth changes with dogleg) or to some other factors (e.g. problems
with cuttings accumulations and hydraulics).

4
 Lesage et al. (1988) separated the rotating friction factor for conventional drilling or
wiper trips and sliding friction factor for turbine/downhole motor drilling or tripping
in/out without rotation and developed a computer model that calculates averaged axial
and rotational friction factor for the complete wellbore. He and Kyllingstad (1995)
discussed the relationship between torque and helical buckling in drilling.

Luke and Juvkam-Wold (1993) investigated the effect of sheave friction in the block
and tackle system of the drilling line and they concluded that hook only is a function of
deadline tension, number of lines between the blocks as well as sheave efficiency and
block-movement direction.

Anston (1998) addressed techniques to minimize torque and drag in the wellbore
including both mechanical and chemical methods. Mechanical methods are by using
special equipment or tubulars in the wellbore and chemicals are for example the use of
lubricants.

Aarrestad (1990) presented a case study of effect of a steerable bottom hole assembly
on torque and drag. He concluded that the crooked profile which these tools give to the
well path may increase the problems associated with high torque and drag in the
wellbore. An analysis of combining surface weight on the bit and bit torque and
downhole measurement of these values gives a clearer picture of the drilling downhole.
In this case, poor bit performance could be distinguished from other problems related to
cuttings transport and differential sticking and thus the correct necessary action could
be taken.

Aadnoy (2006) has extensively derived the mathematical equations for a catenary
well profile. He applied the developed equations to a field case study for an ultra-long
well with 10 km extended-reach. Little friction reduction was observed in comparison
with a conventional well profile as the entrance to the catenary profile at the top creates
extra friction.

5
 3. TORQUE AND DRAG FUNDAMENTALS

This chapter deals with the basic theory behind the torque and drag and various
parameters that affects torque and drag modelling. In this section deliberation on
existing torque and drag models along with literature review will be given.

3.1 TORQUE AND DRAG THEORY

The general theories of torque and drag modelling will be discussed here, including
the fundamental physics and explanations of factors that affect the torque and drag.

3.1.1 Drag

Drag refers to the force difference between the free rotating weight and the force
required to axially move the drill string up or down in the wellbore. For deviated wells
the pick-up drag is higher and slack off drag normally lower than the free rotating
weight. In vertical wellbores pick-up, slack off and free rotating weight are all normally
the same. Figure 3.1 shows the schematics of friction in deviated wellbore.

Figure 3.1: Friction in a deviated well

3.1.2 Torque

Torque is moment or moment of force to rotate drill string. The moment is used to
overcome the rotational friction in the well and on the bit. In deviated wellbores there is
a significant reduction in the magnitude from the rotating string so that less amount of
torque is available on bit for crushing the rock. In perfect vertical wells there is almost

6
zero torque loss, apart from minor torque loss due to viscous forces from drilling fluid.
Figure 3.2 shows the schematics for torque to rotate the drill string.

Figure 3.2: Torque to rotate the drill string

3.2 FACTORS AFFECTING TORQUE AND DRAG

There are number of parameters that influence torque and drag. Some of them can be
modelled while others cannot. The effects that cannot be modelled are lumped together
into a fudge factor commonly known as friction factors. The friction factors vary from
open hole to cased hole and from region to region. Below is the detailed explanation of
these effects and parameters.

3.2.1 Drill string and BHA

Drag is directly related to drill string weight. Therefore, use of low weight pipes in a
long ERW is beneficial. In the other hand the low weight pipes might not weight enough
to overcome the friction and drill further in long ERW. As a result, an optimum
evaluation of drill string design should be considered. Stiff BHA and stabilizers can
interact with formation resulting in higher friction particularly in a high dogleg section.
If the surface of drill string is rough it will add in the friction hence higher torque and
drag.

3.2.2 Well path and profile

Well path and profile have major effects of torque and drag. The factors that affect
the torque and drag because of well path are:

• Dogleg severity

• Contact Surface

7
3.2.3 Dogleg severity:

Dogleg severity is a measure of the amount of change in the inclination and/or

azimuth of borehole, is usually measured in degrees per 100 feet or degrees per 30
meters. If dogleg severity is high one can expect the higher friction due to BHA and
drill string stiffness.

3.2.4 Contact Surface

Contact surface refers to the interaction of borehole walls with drill string and BHA.
In deviated wellbores while moving up, drill string interacts with upper wall of the
wellbore normally in build sections and while moving down, drill string slides over the
lower wall. In either case it gives rise to the friction.

3.2.5 Drilling Fluid

Drilling fluid can affect torque and drag in many ways depending on properties of
drilling fluid. The main parameters that are considered are

• Type of drilling fluid

• Rheological properties and hydrodynamic viscous forces

• Drilling fluid density

3.2.5.1 Type of drilling fluid

Generally, OBM has more lubricating characteristic than WBM. So, using OBM will
yield less friction and hence low torque and drag compared with WBM, although some
lubricants may cause formation damage and can reduce the well inflow performance.

3.2.5.2 Rheological properties and hydrodynamic viscous forces

The rheology of drilling fluid is main factor that creates the hydrodynamic viscous
forces. These forces can directly superimpose on torque and drag. Depending upon the
well trajectory and rheology, these forces either reduce or increase the magnitude of
torque and drag. The rheology of drilling fluid is main factor that creates the
hydrodynamic viscous forces.

8
3.2.5.3 Drilling fluid density

Fluid density differences during tripping in due to pipe filling intervals affects the
increase the drag because of buoyancy effects.

3.2.6 Formation effects

3.2.6.1 Formation Properties

Different formation lithologies have different lubricating properties due to chemical

composition and grain size. The coarse-grained formations give high friction when drill
string is moved against their walls.

3.2.6.2 Wellbore Stability

Differential sticking, swelling shale, tight hole and sloughing shale all give rise to
frictions in wellbore and hence to torque and drag. Loss of circulation can also increase
the friction due to loss of lubricity. Figure 3.3 shows the mechanism of differential
sticking and shale formations respectively.

Figure 3.3: Differential Sticking in shale formation

3.2.7 Hole Cleaning

If the hole is not properly cleaned due to improper cuttings transport and medium to
high angle well sections, cuttings bed can be formed in high angle section and cuttings
can accumulate in form of dunes at the tip of medium angle section. This could yield in
minor to severe pack-off situations which of course cause high drag and torque. The
presence of cuttings in fluid flow system also gives rise to in friction. Figure 3.4 shows
the cuttings accumulation behaviour in ERWs.

9
 Figure 3.4: Cuttings accumulation in ERW

3.3 Buoyancy factor

Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an

immersed object. In a fluid column, pressure increases with depth as a result of the
weight of the overlying fluid. Thus, a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the
fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column as of at the top. The
Figure 3.5 shows the concept of buoyancy on for an immersed object in fluid.

Figure 3.5: Buoyancy effects

In the well filled with drilling fluid/mud, the weight of drill string is the weight in air
minus the mud weight that the steel in the string displaces, this phenomenon is
Archimedes principle. The buoyancy factor can be defined as shown in equation 3.1

𝜌𝑚𝑢𝑑
𝛽 = 1− (3.1)
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

10
If there are different densities of fluid inside and outside the pipe for example during
tripping in, during displacement of mud to new mud and while cementing, the buoyancy
factor can define as shown in equation 3.2

𝜌𝑜 𝐴𝑜 −𝜌𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝛽 = 1− (3.2)
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝐴𝑜 −𝐴𝑖 )

Where:
β = Buoyancy factor
𝜌𝑚𝑢𝑑 = Density of drilling mud/fluid
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = Density of drill string normally density of steel
𝜌𝑜 = Density of fluid outside the pipe
𝜌𝑖 = Density of fluid inside the pipe
𝐴𝑜 = Outer cross-sectional area
𝐴𝑖 = Inner cross-sectional area

A heavy mud will decrease the effective weight of the drill string, and thus decrease
side force and the load from friction and torque. However, a heavy mud has more
weighing particles which could lead to less lubricity and therefore higher friction.

3.4 Friction

Contact friction as when two relatively smooth solid bodies slide against each other
will be independent of the speed the two bodies slide against, and independent of the
contact area, only for soft string model being under consideration but friction force will
be proportional to the contact force of which the surfaces are slide against. A friction
coefficient, μ is the ratio of friction force to normal force. In order to find the normal
force in an inclined plane consider the schematics shown in Figure 3.6.

The friction coefficient gives friction force as percentage of the normal force. The
direction of friction is always opposite the direction of movement.

When the two bodies are at rest, we have static friction, which normally is higher than
sliding friction as shown in Figure 3.7. This is due to interlocking of irregularities of
the two surfaces.

11
 Figure 3.6: Forces on a block sliding on an inclined plane

Figure 3.7: Static and dynamic friction

Static friction will resist motion and counteract any applied force up to a certain
maximum where friction is overcome and motion begins. Once the object is in motion,
the dynamic friction will resist motion. Torque and drag models use only dynamic
friction effects.

The friction factor is a key parameter in torque and drag modelling because it
characterizes the surface to surface interaction which is the heart of model. The friction
factor applicable to any situation is a function of many things, including fluid type,
composition and lubricity, formation type, casing and tool joint material and roughness.
When significant portions of both cased and open hole exists, it may be necessary to use
more than one friction factors, normally two one for open hole and one for cased hole.
Generally, the friction factors selected are 0.2 and 0.3 for cased and open hole
respectively.

12
 4. TORQUE AND DRAG MODELS

Commonly used torque and drag models will be discussed together with historical
evolution of these models. Since most of work for this thesis has been done using
Halliburton Landmark Well Plan software, the theories and calculations that are used in
Well Plan will also be discussed. Also, model for hydrodynamic viscous forces will be
discussed here.

4.1 JOHANCSIK TORQUE AND DRAG MODEL

In 1984 C.A. Johancsik presented the pioneer friction analysis model. In his model
both torque and drag were assumed to be caused entirely by sliding friction between
drill string and borehole wall. Other sources of torque and drag like friction due to fluid
and cuttings, static friction and piston forces were not considered.

The following equation 4.1 represent the mathematical model and steps for
determining the torque and drag forces.

∆𝐹𝑡 = 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ± 𝜇𝐹𝑁 (4.1)

In equation 4.1 plus and minus signs are for tripping out and in respectively.
Figure 4.1 shows the forces acting on drill string element.

Figure 4.1: Forces acting on drill string element during pickup.

13
4.2 SHEPPARD MODEL

In 1987 Sheppard et al. put the Johancsik model into standard differential form and
also took the mud pressure into account that acts upward so instead of using true tension
he used effective tension.

He presented the friction model in order to estimate the torque and drag in different
well geometries. This model was based on assumption that the drag force on the drill
string at any location is proportional to side force acting there. The coefficient of
proportionality, K is the sliding friction coefficient in the model.

He proposed equation (4.2), effective tension 𝜎𝑒 (S), which is the sum of true tension
𝛿(S), and product of mud pressure acting at S and the cross-sectional area of the pipe. S
is the distance along the well path from the bit.

𝜎𝑒 (𝑆) = 𝛿(𝑆) + 𝑃(𝑆)𝐴(𝑆) (4.2)

In case of rotation the drag is considered to act at an appropriate radius giving rise to
a local torque loss. The total torque loss is the sum of these contributions.

14
 5. TORQUE AND DRAG ANALYSIS

5.1 OVERVIEW

Drill strings are subjected to forces of tension, torsion, and bending when drilling a
well. Designing a string to accommodate these forces requires knowledge of the
physical properties of the pipe.

Drill strings must be designed to:

• Transmit and support axial loads.

• Transmit and support torsional loads.

• Withstand potential fatigue damage.

5.2 DRILL STRING COMPONENTS

Drill strings are made up of many different components as shown in Table 5.1. The
components selected for the drill string vary depending on the purpose of the drill string,
and the conditions the drill string will encounter in the well.

Although this section discusses drill string design, Well Plan software can also
analyze the forces acting on casing, tubing, or coiled tubing strings.

Table 5.1: Component types to create the string

Accelerator Hydraulic Valve

Adjustable Near Bit Reamer Instrument

Anchor Intelligent Well Tool

Anchor Shoe Jar

Bit Mandrel

Block Mud Motor

Casing MWD

15
 Casing Scrapper Packer

Casing Shoe Polished Bore Receptical

Coiled Tubing Port Collar/Diverter

Conventional Pump Progressing Cavity Pump

Core Barrel Pump Rod

Cuttings Bed Impeller Recorder

Drill Collar Safety Joint

Drill Pipe Sampler

Electric Submersible Pump Slotted Pipe

Fish Stabilizer

Fishing tool Sub

Float collar Subsurface safety valve

Hydraulic Lift Pump Wellbore Equipment

If the component you need is not listed, you can select “Unknown” as the Section Type
field of the String tab, and define the properties of the component using the component
details.

5.3 DRILL PIPE SELECTION

Drill pipe selection is very important and depends on many factors such as equivalent
circulating density (ECD), torque and drag, tensile loads, hole cleaning, casing wear,
desired weight on bit (WOB) and other factors depending on your particular situation.

Use Well Plan software to analyze several scenarios, and then select the one that meets
your requirements. The Well Plan software supports only a few types of drill pipes and
drill string components.

16
5.3.1 Heavy Weight Drill Pipe

Heavy weight drill pipe as shown in Figure 5.1, is primarily used to add weight to
the string for additional weigh-on-bit, although it also increases the stiffness of the
string. Heavy weight pipe comes in a variety of sizes and weights, and is over two times
heavier than the equivalent size of standard drill pipe. Heavy weight is available in
standard, spiral, and non-magnetic form. Heavy weight has longer tool joints, with more
upset than regular drill pipe, which increases the weight.

Figure 5.1: Heavy Weight Drill Pipe

5.3.2 Drill Collars

Drill collars are used to provide additional weight-on-bit (WOB) with a stiff tubular.
Drill collars are available in many sizes and weights. Drill collar outside diameters range
from 2 7/8” to 12”, with an inside diameter range of 1” to 4”. Drill collars are made from
a variety of materials which impacts the stiffness and weight of the drill collar. Drill
collars are predominately round like drill pipe. However, some drill collars are
triangular or square. The shape of the drill collar can affect the stiffness as well. There
are different types of drill collars:

• Magnetic Drill Collars

• Non-Magnetic Drill Collars

17
 Figure 5.2: Flex type

Figure 5.3: Spiral

Mostly used drill collars are flux type and Spiral type shown in Figure 5.2 and Figure
5.3. In order to get a good reading with the survey tool, a certain amount of non-
magnetic distance from the tool must be maintained. The material used to make non-
magnetic collars is softer than magnetic drill collars. As a result, problems with non-
magnetic drill collars may include:

• Galling on tool joints

• Frequent re-cutting the tool joints may be needed

• Hot spots may develop

• Costly

Spiral drill collars reduce differential sticking by reducing the surface contact between
the drill collar and the formation. Spiral drill collars have an approximate 4% weight
loss when compared to non-spiral drill collars.

18
5.3.3 Stabilizer

Stabilizers are used for many reasons, and can be used to control deviation, reduce
vibration, and increase the rigidity of the bottom hole assembly (BHA).

Integral blade stabilizers are machined from one piece of bar stock. This makes the
stabilizer more durable, but also more expensive.

Welded blade stabilizers are not as rugged as integral blade stabilizers, nor are they
as expensive. A welded blade stabilizer is essentially a sub with blades welded on. There
is the chance a blade will fall off, and need to be fished out of the hole.

Sleeve stabilizers are commonly used on motors. Sleeve stabilizers can be easily
changed out on the rig either to put on a kick pad, or to change to the gauge needed on
the motor.

Stabilizers can have straight or spiral blades, shown in Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5.

5.3.3.1 Straight blades

• Generate a lot of torque and vibration

• Lower standpipe pressure than spiral blade stabilizers

• Preferable for Hole cleaning and pressure loss

• Easier to pump cuttings past a straight blade stabilizer

Figure 5.4: Straight Blades

19
5.3.3.2 Spiral blades

• Less torque because the blades stay in contact with the formation longer. As a result,
a spiral blade stabilizer doesn’t move around in the hole like a straight blade
stabilizer would.

• Slightly higher standpipe pressure.

• More difficult to pump cuttings past a spiral blade stabilizer.

• More likely for cuttings to ball up around a spiral blade stabilizer.

• The right-hand spiral helps move the cuttings up the hole. A left-hand spiral would
have the opposite effect.

Figure 5.5: Spiral blades

5.3.4 Crossover Subs

Crossover subs shown in Figure 5.6 enable different sizes and types of bottom hole
assembly (BHA) components to be connected to form the drill string. These subs allow
the crossover from large connections to smaller ones and vice versa.

Figure 5.6: Crossover Subs

20
5.4 DRILL STRING COMPONENT PROPERTIES

Performing the analysis using Well Plan software requires detailed information about
the geometric, and mechanical properties of each component used in the string. Many
of the properties, such as weight, outside diameter (OD), inside diameter (ID), are
common to most components. Component properties are defined for each string
component using the details section located below the spreadsheet section of the String
tab as shown in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Drill String Components box

21
5.5 DRILL PIPE PROPERTIES

Drill pipe is a common component for many strings, and is defined by many of the
same properties used to define other components. Therefore, this section shown in
Figure 5.8 of the manual will examine drill pipe properties in detail. Much of the
material covered in this section applies to other components.

Drill Pipe selection is based on:

• Nominal size/diameter

• Nominal weight

• Grade

• Connection

• Class

Figure 5.8: Drill pipe Catalog

5.6 FRICTION

In a well environment the string is moved in contact with the wellbore. The string is
made up of drill pipe, casing and various tools moving across the well surfaces, which
consist of casing and rock formations. The various types of string components are run
into, pulled out of, and rotated against the wellbore.

22
 Movement in the well generates two types of friction: drag and torque. Axial (up and
down) movement creates drag. Rotational movement creates torque. Drag makes it more
difficult to push the string down or pull it up out of the hole. Torque makes it more
difficult for the rig to turn, or rotate, the string.

5.6.1 Friction Calibration

The down hole drilling environment is more complex than this simple example, and
there are many other parameters that contribute to torque and drag. Example include:

• Wellbore obstructions like cuttings

• Fluid Lubricity

• Formation types

• Pore Pressure

• Wellbore instability

• Stabilizers

When using the Well Plan software, the coefficient of friction you specify for the
analysis, accounts for more downhole effects than mechanical friction. For this reason,
it is recommended that you calibrate the coefficient of friction using actual data when
possible.

The Friction Calibration plot provides the flexibility to calibrate friction factors
within a section. Sections can be created for one or more measured depth intervals.
Friction factors can be manually adjusted to achieve the best curve fit to the actual
load(s) data. Some of the typical friction factors are shown in Table 5.2. You can select
a friction factor for use in a hole section, or for an operation. The Friction Calibration
plot shown in Figure 5.9 is available from the Torque & Drag ribbon. Select the friction
calibration and calculate the friction factors between two selected points. Sections can
be created for one or more measured depth intervals. The coefficient of friction you
specify for the analysis, accounts for more downhole effects than mechanical friction.
The Friction Calibration plot provides the flexibility to calibrate friction factors within
a section.
23
 Table 5.2: Typical Friction Factors

Cased Hole Open Hole

Mud Type Friction Factor Friction Factor

Air 0.35 - 0.55 0.40 - 0.60

Foam 0.30 - 0.40 0.35 - 0.55

Lignosulfate 0.20 - 0.25 0.20 - 0.30

Polymer 0.15 - 0.22 0.20 - 0.30

Oil Base 0.10 - 0.20 0.15 - 0.20

Figure 5.9: Friction Calibration plot in Well plan software

24
5.7 DRAG IN THE STRING

5.7.1 Drag While Tripping Out

When pulling out of hole, drag pulls down as in Figure 5.10. Friction always opposes
movement. When tripping out, drag increases the hook load, effectively causing the
string to weigh more. If the string cannot be pulled out of the hole, it may fail.

Figure 5.10: Drag While Tripping Out

5.7.2 Drag While Tripping In

When running in hole (RIH) as shown in Figure 5.11, drag pushes up. Friction always
opposes movement. When tripping in (RIH), drag decreases the hook load, effectively
causing the string to weigh less.

Figure 5.11: Drag While Tripping In

25
5.7.3 Impact of Rotation Speed on Drag

Increasing rotational speed (rpm) decreases drag. When considering how string
movement affects drag, it can be helpful to think of the angular speed in terms of
rotational speed.

Using the following equation 5.1 to calculate the resultant speed, you can see that
increasing the angular (rotational speed) increases the resultant speed. Referencing the
above calculation for drag, notice increasing the resultant speed reduces the drag force.

𝑣𝑟 = √𝑣𝑡2 + 𝑣𝑎2 (5.1)

Where:

𝑣𝑡 = Trip speed

𝑣𝑟 = Resultant speed

𝑣𝑎 = Angular speed

5.8 PROBLEMS EXCEEDING MAKEUP TORQUE

The problems that are experienced when exceeding the makeup torque of a
component affect the couplings and tool joints, and these problems occur long before
the torsional limit of a component is exceeded. The pipe body torsional limit is always
much higher than the makeup torque of the connections and is not something that a
torque and drag user needs to be concerned with while modelling. We are concerned
with not exceeding the makeup torque of the string components. The make-up torque is
specified using the Mechanical details section for the string component highlighted in
the String tab.

5.9 IMPACT OF ROTATION SPEED ON TORQUE

Increasing rotational speed (rpm) increases torque. When considering how string
movement affects torque, it can be helpful to think of the angular speed in terms of
rotational speed.

Using the following equation 5.2 to calculate the resultant speed, you can see that
increasing the angular (rotational speed) increases the resultant speed. Referencing the
previous calculation for torque, notice increasing the resultant speed increases torque.

26
𝑣𝑟 = √𝑣𝑡2 + 𝑣𝑎2 (5.2)

Where:

𝑣𝑎 = Angular speed

𝑣𝑟 = Resultant speed

𝑣𝑡 = Trip speed

5.10 RADIUS OF ROTATION

The radius about which rotational friction occurs factors into the amount of torque
generated. This is either the outside diameter (OD) of the casing/tubing if the connection
is flush, or the tool joint if it is raised past the outer diameter of the tube. For drill pipe
with welded tool joints, the connection outer diameter determines the radius of rotation.

The larger the radius of the string component, the greater the effective length of travel.
The larger the outer diameter of the string component is, the more effort it takes for each
rotation. Below the circumferences of a small and large circle are shown, which
represents the distance travelled for a small and large outer diameter component with
each rotation.

27
 6. HYDRAULICS ANALYSIS

6.1 OVERVIEW

The Well Plan software can be used to model pressure losses across the circulating
system of the rig and the string, estimate the equivalent circulating density (ECD) across
the annular space, and analyze formation cuttings transport and the effect on pressure
and ECD calculations. The following drilling parameters affect the hydraulics:

• Rheology
• Types of Flow
• Drilling Fluids
• Bit Optimization
• Equivalent Circulating Densities

The hydraulics design must be able to clean the hole by maximizing flow rates while
remaining within the pressure limits of the rig surface equipment, pumps, drill string
and downhole equipment, open hole and casing pressure. Hole cleaning is usually
directly related to the flow rate and drilling fluid properties. Rate of penetration is
usually directly related to the bit nozzle sizes. PDC bits are an exception where a specific
flow rate is required for acceptable rate of penetration, rather than hydraulic horsepower.

6.2 RHEOLOGY

Rheology is the study of the flow (of fluids) and deformation (of solids) of matter.
Most drilling fluids are dispersions or emulsions with complex rheologies. Basic fluid
rheology concepts are required to understand the flow behaviour of non-Newtonian
fluids. Shear rate and shear stress play an important role in describing fluid rheology.
Rheology is studied by measuring the shear stress imposed on fluids at varying shear
rates.

Shear rate is a velocity gradient measured across the diameter of a pipe or annulus. It
is the rate at which one layer of fluid is moving past another. Shear stress is the force
per unit area required to sustain fluid flow. Shear stress is the resistance, or drag force
opposing the movement.

The relationship of shear stress to shear rate as shown in Figure 6.1 defines the flow
behaviour of the fluid, or the viscosity of the fluid. If the ratio of shear rate to shear

28
stress is linear, the fluid is Newtonian. If the ratio is not linear, then the fluid is called
Non-Newtonian. Non-Newtonian fluids can be further classified as “Shear-thickening”
(dilatant), or “Shear-thinning” (Pseudo-Plastic).

Figure 6.1: Relationship of shear stress to shear strain

The Well Plan software supports several rheology models including:

• Bingham Plastic
• Power law
• Herschel Buckley
• Generalized Herschel Buckley

6.3 TYPES OF FLOW

Fluid flow can be categorized using the following flow regimes:

• Laminar flow
• Transitional flow
• Turbulent flow

6.4 HOLE CLEANING

There are many factors that affect hole cleaning, such as:

• Flow rate
• Rheological properties
• Cutting density, size and shape
• Rate of Penetration (ROP)

29
• Hole angle
• Hole eccentricity
• Pipe movement

Hole cleaning is a concern because it can cause major issues, including:

• Inability to continue drilling due to:

• Increased Torque
• Weight transfer issues
• Increased Drag
• Difficulty maintaining directional control
• Stuck pipe
• Formation Breakdown due to increased ECD

6.4.1 Flow Rate

The flow rate is very important to avoid hole cleaning issues. The minimum flow rate
is the rate that will clean the wellbore for a specified rate of penetration, rotary speed,
pump rate, bed porosity, cuttings diameter, and density. If there is a bed height forming,
the total cuttings volume will begin to become greater than the suspended cuttings
volume in that portion of the wellbore. In order to avoid the formation of a cuttings bed
in that portion of the well, you must increase the specified flow rate to a rate greater
than the minimum flow rate.

6.4.2 Rheological Properties

Rheological properties, such as the yield point and K, determine the thickness of the
fluid, and therefore have an effect on the ability of the fluid to keep the cuttings
suspended in the fluid.

6.4.3 Cuttings density, Size and Shape

Smaller cuttings are easier to remove from the wellbore than larger ones. Cuttings
shape is also important, and flatter cuttings are easier to remove than spherical cuttings.
Rock density also has an effect, as lighter cuttings are easier to remove than heavier
cuttings. If there is a bed height forming, the total cuttings volume will begin to become
greater than the suspended cuttings volume in that portion of the wellbore. Smaller
cuttings are easier to remove from the wellbore than larger ones.

30
6.4.4 Fluid density

Increasing fluid density will increase buoyancy, and can help lift cuttings off the low
side of the wellbore into the areas with higher flow rates. Cuttings in higher flow areas
are more easily removed from the wellbore. Drilling fluid “sweeps” are specific fluids
designed to transport cuttings that cannot be removed by ordinary drilling fluid
circulation, and can be effective in high angle sections.

6.4.5 Rate of Penetration (ROP)

As ROP increases, the amount of cuttings will also increase. When drilling at faster
rates, the annular fluid velocity must also increase. At some point, the flow rate may not
be able to effectively remove the cuttings generated. If this occurs, the ROP must be
decreased, or another action, such as a short trip, circulate bottoms up, or using a high
density sweep may be used.

6.4.6 Hole Angle

The hole angle must be considered for hole cleaning. In vertical hole sections, the
flow around the string is uniform. In high angle hole sections, there is uneven flow. The
string may be laying in the wellbore. Cuttings may fall towards the low side of the hole
and develop into a cuttings bed.

6.4.7 Hole Eccentricity

Hole eccentricity refers to where the string is in regards to the centre of the wellbore.
Normally eccentricity is expressed as a percentage. A string is considered 100%
eccentric when it is lying on against the side of the wellbore. On the other hand, a string
is considered concentric (0% eccentricity) when it is centred in the wellbore.
Eccentricity has a significant effect on annular pressure drop.

6.5 Bit Optimization

The available power for cleaning the bottom of the well is the pressure at the bit
multiplied by the flow rate. Therefore, ideally it is desirable to have most of the pressure
loss at the bit and little pressure loss elsewhere in the system. Bit jet velocity is the
velocity of the drilling fluid as it goes through the bit nozzles. The total flow area (TFA)
is the summation of the nozzle areas used for fluid flow through the bit. Consider all
nozzles when calculating TFA.

31
6.6 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY

As drilling fluid is circulated through the wellbore, the circulating pressure must be
greater than the friction losses in the string and bit, the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid
in the annulus, and the friction losses in the annulus. The equivalent circulating density
(ECD) is the pressure required to overcome the total friction losses in the annulus, and
the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid. Commonly ECD is calculated at the last casing
shoe. The ECD of the mud is the mud weight that would exert the circulating pressures
under static conditions at the specified depth. ECD is an important factor in avoiding
fluid losses and kicks in wells especially when the window between the fracture gradient
and pore pressure gradient is narrow.

6.7 DRILLING FLUIDS

The drilling fluid must be able to:

• Remove cuttings from the hole

• Suspend cuttings during trips
• Allow cuttings to settle in surface system
• Prevent caving of formation
• Control formation pressures
• Control corrosion of drilling tools
• Cool and lubricate the drill string and the bit

32
 7. TORQUE, DRAG AND HYDRAULICS ANALYSIS ON
SOFTWARE

7.1 TORQUE AND DRAG OUTPUTS

The Well Plan software has many outputs available on the Torque & Drag ribbon as
shown in Figure 7.1. Most of the outputs provide you the results at the surface when
the String is at the string depth specified on String tab.

Figure 7.1: Torque & Drag Outputs

Roadmap Plots are unique because they are used to predict the measured weights and
torques, at the surface or a specified distance from the bottom of the string, when the
bottom of the work string is at a range of wellbore depths.

On the Torque & Drag ribbon, the plots and tables with similar functionality are grouped
in categories in the ribbon as follows:

•Fixed Depth Plots

•Stress Plots

•Load & Stress Data

•Roadmap Plots

•Other

33
7.1.1 Fixed Depth Plots

7.1.1.1 Effective Tension Plot

Use the Effective Tension plot as shown in Figure 7.2, is used to view the effective
tension in the string for the operations enabled on the Operations tab. Effective tension
can be used to determine when buckling may occur. Data is included for the measured
depths from the surface to the String Depth specified on the String tab.

Figure 7.2: Effective Tension Plot

34
This plot displays:

• Curves indicating the loads required to helically or sinusoidally buckle the string.
If an operation curve crosses a buckling load curve, the string will begin to buckle
in the buckling mode corresponding to the buckling load line as displayed in the
above plot.

• Curve indicating the tension limit for the string component at the corresponding
measured depth. If an operation curve crosses the Tension Limit curve, the string is
in danger of parting at that point. The Minimum yield strength for the component
is specified in the Mechanical Details section of the String tab.

• Curve indicating the Rig Capacity will be displayed if you have checked Block
rating and specified the block rating on the Rig tab.

7.1.1.2 True Tension Plot

The True Tension plot as shown in Figure 7.3, displays the true tension in the string
for all operations selected on the Operations tab. True tension is calculated using the
pressure area method and should only be used for stress analysis. This plot includes a
curve indicating the Rig Capacity if you have checked Block rating and specified the
block rating on the Rig tab.

Figure 7.3: True Tension Plot

35
7.1.1.3 Torque Plot

The Torque plot displays the torque in the string for the operations enabled on the
Operations tab. Data is included for the measured depths from the surface to the String
Depth specified on the String tab.

This plot displays the curve indicating the makeup torque limit for the string
component at the corresponding measured depth. If an operation curve crosses the
Torque Limit curve, the tool joints for the string are liable to over-torque or break at that
point. Hover the cursor over the curve to display a tool tip indicating the string
component at that depth.

7.1.2 Roadmap Plots

7.1.2.1 Hook Load Plot

The Hook Load plot displays the hook load at the surface, or a point of interest when
the bottom of the string is at each of the incremental depths specified in the Common
section of the Analysis Settings tab. Results are displayed for the operations enabled on
the Operations tab. For inner string analysis, the hook load is the combined load from
both the inner and outer strings. Using the plot, you can determine the load that will fail
the string, but you will not be able to determine what component failed in the string. To
display the hook load at the surface, click Surface. This option is located at the top of
the plot.

This plot displays:

• Maximum Weight Yield - Curve indicating the Maximum Weight Yield while
tripping out when the bottom of the string is at the corresponding run measured
depth. If the tripping out operation curve crosses the Maximum Weight Yield curve,
the string is in danger of parting. The Max Weight Yield for a run measured depth
is the Minimum yield strength specified for any string component that will be in the
well when the bottom of the string is at the corresponding run measured depth.

• Minimum Weight Helical Buckle - Curve displays the minimum hook load at the
surface to buckle the string when the bottom of the string is at the Run Measured
Depth as indicated on the Y-axis. If an operation curve crosses a buckling load

36
 curve, the string will begin to buckle in the buckling mode corresponding to the
buckling load line.

7.1.2.2 Torque Point Plot

The Torque Point plot displays the maximum torque at the surface, or a point of
interest when the bottom of the string is at each of the incremental depths specified in
the Common section of the Analysis Settings tab. Results are displayed for the
operations enabled on the Operations tab, except for the User Defined Operation. This
plot also displays the torque limit for the rig (if specified and enabled on the Rig tab),
and the make-up torque limit for the component at the surface or point of interest. The
torque limit is derated for tension.

This plot displays:

• Make-up Torque - Curve indicating the make-up torque of the component currently
at the surface or at the point of interest. The make-up torque for string components
is entered using the Mechanical section of the String tab.

• Curve indicating the Torque Rating will be displayed if you have checked Torque
rating and specified the rating on the Rig tab.

7.1.2.3 Minimum WOB Plot

The Minimum WOB plot displays the minimum weight-on-bit (WOB) to initiate
sinusoidal or helical buckling at any point in the string when the bottom of the string is
at each of the incremental depths

7.1.2.4 Friction Calibration Plot

The Friction Calibration plot provides the flexibility to calibrate friction factors
within a section. Sections can be created for one or more measured depth intervals.
Friction factors can be manually adjusted to achieve the best curve fit to the actual
load(s) data. You can select a friction factor for use in a hole section, or for an operation.
The coefficient of friction you specify for the analysis, accounts for more downhole
effects than mechanical friction. For this reason, it is recommended that you calibrate
the coefficient of friction using actual data when possible.

37
7.2 ANALYSIS OF OUTPUTS OF TORQUE AND DRAG

This section provides information about analysis options pertaining to Torque & Drag
Outputs. If you do not have an output selected that requires a specific analysis option, it
will not be displayed in the Analysis Settings tab as shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Analysis tab on Well Plan software

7.2.1 Actual Load Values

The actual load data consists of rows or information with one row per measured depth.
You can record data for any measured depth. It may be useful to record this information
just inside the casing shoe, or at total depth just prior to setting casing. It is not necessary
to specify all values for each row. However, the measured depth must always be
specified, and must always increase. The trip in and trip out measured weights, and
rotating off bottom torque values are required to calibrate the coefficient of friction.
Other values are input for plotting actual load data on applicable plots. However, the
measured depth must always be specified, and must always increase. You can record
data for any measured depth.

38
7.2.2 Friction Calibration

Coefficients of friction along the wellbore can be calculated from actual data
collected while drilling. This provides a means of calibrating the model against actual
field results. To calibrate coefficients of friction, you must collect a series of weights
and torques at the wellsite. Some of this data is obtained with the string inside the casing
shoe, and other information is obtained in the open hole section. When gathering actual
field data, it is best if friction reduction devices are not being used. Over the sections
where the devices are used, the effects of the friction devices must include the calibrated
friction factors.

You must calculate the coefficient of friction in the cased hole section first, then the
open hole. This is required because data recorded in the open hole section includes the
combined effects of friction between the string and the casing as well as the friction
between the string and the open hole. Therefore, the coefficient of friction for the cased
hole must be determined before that of the open hole.

It is important to realize that hole conditions may also affect the coefficient of friction
calculated. If the actual weights recorded include the effects of a build up of cuttings,
the bottom hole assembly (BHA) hanging up downhole, or other hole conditions.
Because the recorded weights include these effects, the calculated coefficient of friction
will also.

7.2.3 Block Weight

Specify the weight of the traveling assembly. This is the weight indicator reading
when the pipe is in the slips.

7.2.4 Sheave Friction Correction

When this option is enabled, the sheave friction correction model is applied to all
measured weight calculations. You must also specify the number of Lines strung
between the crown and the traveling block, and the mechanical efficiency values.
Mechanical efficiency is the energy efficiency of an individual sheave (97.5—98%
correlate with field results). Friction estimates from pick-up and slack-off loads are
underestimated and overestimated because uneven distribution of dynamic loads to
drilling lines are caused by friction in the block sheaves.
39
7.2.5 Viscous Torque & Drag

Enable this option to include viscous fluid effects in the analysis. The viscous fluid
effects cause differing torque and drag on the string depending on the pipe rotation and
trip speeds. The magnitude depends strongly on the fluid rheology model chosen in the
fluid editor.

7.2.6 Stiff String Model

The Stiff String model computes the additional side force from stiff tubulars bending
in a curved hole as well as the reduced side forces from pipe straightening due to
pipe/hole clearance. This model is complex, and therefore takes a significantly longer
time to run than the Soft String model.

7.2.7 Buckling Limit Factor

The buckling limit factor modifies the constants used in the buckling equation and
adjusts the buckling limit lines based on the wellbore tortuosity, or shape. A zero or
empty field will be assumed to be a factor of 1, and will not modify the limits. Higher
values increase the buckling limit, and smaller values reduce the limit. Suggested values
based on the WELLPLAN Model vary from 0.848 to 2.0.

7.2.8 Maximum Overpull

Specify the percentage of yield you want to maintain while calculating the maximum
overpull. Maximum overpull is the margin of extra weight above the static hook load
the string can handle when pulling out of hole before the specified percentage of yield
is exceeded.

7.2.9 Fluid Column

Use this option to specify surface pressure, and multiple, or different fluid densities
in the string and/or annulus. If you are not applying pressure at the surface, and you are
using one fluid in the string and annulus, enter the fluid information on the Fluids tab.

Use fluid column gradient if:

• More than one fluid is present

40
• Different fluid densities are present

• Surface pressure is applied

Fluid flow changes the forces and stresses on the work string in three ways.

• The calculated Pump Off Force is an additional compressive force at the end of the
string caused by the acceleration of fluid through the bit jets. The calculations for
bit impact force are used to determine this force.
• Forces and stresses in the drill string are caused by the differential between the pipe
and annulus fluid pressures from the hydraulic system, including bit and MWD /
motor pressures losses.
• Fluid shear forces act on the work string as a result of shear stresses caused by the
frictional flow in the pipe and annulus. Fluid flow changes the forces and stresses
on the work string in three ways.
• Surface pressure in the string acts as an additional axial force.

• Surface pressure in the annulus acts as an additional compressive force.

7.3 HYDRAULICS OUTPUTS

The Well Plan software has many outputs of Hydraulics as shown in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Hydraulics Outputs

Roadmap Plots are unique because they are used to predict the equivalent circulating
densities and pressures at the surface or a specified distance from the bottom of the
string, when the bottom of the work string is at a range of wellbore depths. The
calculations performed for this analysis are similar to those used in many other outputs,
except that the calculations are performed assuming the bottom of the work string is at
multiple depths instead of one depth.
41
 On the Hydraulics ribbon, the plots and tables with similar functionality are grouped
in categories in the ribbon as follows:

• Hole Cleaning Plots

• Pressure and ECD Plots

• Roadmap Plots

• Bit Optimization Plots

7.3.1 Hole Cleaning Plots

7.3.1.1 Minimum Flow Rate vs depth Plot

This plot can be used to determine the minimum (critical) pump flow rate at which a
cuttings bed will begin to form. In order to prevent cuttings bed formation, maintain a
flow rate for a particular depth greater than the minimum flow rate. The minimum flow
rate varies because of variations in hole and string geometry.

7.3.1.2 Minimum Flow Rate vs ROP Plot

This plot can used to determine the minimum (critical) flow rate that a cuttings bed
will begin to form in the annulus for a range of penetration rates (ROP) while rotating
at the rotary speed (RPM) specified on the Analysis Settings tab. The ROP determines
the amount of cuttings produced (a cuttings flow rate).

7.3.1.3 Cuttings Bed Height vs Depth Plot

Use the Cuttings Bed Height vs Depth plot to determine if a cuttings bed will form at
any distance along the string when pumping. If a cuttings bed is forming, increase the
pump rate so that it is greater than the critical pump rate to avoid cuttings bed formation
in that section of the well. We can also use a booster pump instead of increasing the
pump rate keeping the pump rate as the initial pump rate, which avoids the formation of
cutting bed.

This plot can be obtained by selecting the cuttings bed height vs depth plot from the
hydraulics ribbon.

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7.3.1.4 Cuttings Volume vs Depth Plot

Use the Cuttings Volume vs Depth plot to display cuttings total volume, and cuttings
suspended volume at the Pump rate. At any depth, if the total volume % is greater than
the suspended volume % of cuttings, a cuttings bed has formed.

For any distance along the string, use this plot to determine the:

• Suspended volume % of cuttings - This is the percentage of the annular volume

filled with cuttings suspended in the drilling fluid. Suspended volume does not
include cuttings lying in the hole and forming a cuttings bed.

• Total volume % of cuttings - This is the percentage of the annular volume filled
with cuttings, including cuttings suspended in the drilling fluid, and cuttings
forming a bed.

7.3.2 Pressure and ECD Plots

7.3.2.1 Pressure Loss vs Pump Rate Plot

Use the Pressure Loss vs Pump Rate plot to display system, bit, string, and annular
pressure losses for the range of flow rates specified in the Hydraulics section of the
Analysis Settings tab. Each curve on the plot represents a separate pressure loss. This
plot also displays the Maximum Rated Pressure and the Maximum Pump Pressure. The
Maximum Rated Pressure is the Rated working pressure The Maximum Pump Pressure
can be input in the Hydraulics section of the Analysis Settings tab, or it can use the Max
discharge pressure specified for the active pump as specified on the Rig tab. If more
than one pump is marked active on the Rig tab, the smallest Max discharge pressure
specified for any active pump will be used.

7.3.2.2 ECD vs Depth Plot

Use the ECD vs Depth plot to analyze ECD (equivalent circulating density) at any
point in the string. Data is included for the measured depths from the surface to the
String Depth specified on the String tab. ECD is the density that would exert the
circulating pressure under static conditions.

ECD is calculated based on the rheological method specified in the Fluids tab. The
shoe setting depth is retrieved from the Hole tab. Pore pressure and fracture gradient
data are input on the Subsurface tab.

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7.3.2.3 Critical Pump Rate vs Depth Plot

The Critical Pump Rate vs Depth plot is used to determine the pump rate that will
result in fluid flow outside of the laminar flow regime for any depth in the wellbore.
Data is included for the measured depths from the surface to the String Depth specified
on the String tab. Pump rates greater than the critical flow rate at any depth indicates the
flow regime is moving out of laminar flow and into transitional or turbulent flow.

7.3.2.4 Bit Nozzle Velocity Plot

Use the Bit Nozzle Velocity plot to determine the velocity of the fluid through the bit
for a range of flow rates and varied total flow area (TFA). The bit velocity is calculated
by first determining the pressure loss through the bit. Pressure loss calculations are
based on the rheological model selected on the Fluid tab, and assume the total system
pressure loss is equal to the maximum pump pressure entered on the Rig tab. Based on
the total system pressure loss, as well as the string, fluid, and hole section information,
the pressure loss at the bit is calculated. TFA can be calculated when the pressure loss
at the bit and the flow rate are known. The velocity at the bit can be determined from
the TFA calculation.

This plot displays:

• The pump rate from zero up to the flow rate resulting in parasitic pressure losses
equal to 100 percent of the total system pressure loss. (Essentially this case results
in zero pressure loss at the bit.)

• The velocity of the fluid through the bit for a range of flow rates and varied total
flow area (TFA).

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 8. ANALYSIS OF TORQUE, DRAG & HYDRAULICS IN WELL
PLAN SOFTWARE WITH CASE STUDY

WELL DATA

Total well depth = 20,000 ft

Hole Diameter = 20 inches

Riser Inner Diameter = 18 inches

Casing shoe depth = 12,500 ft

Casing Inner Diameter = 13.375 m

Riser Length = 590 ft

Open Hole Length = 7,500 ft

Drilling Fluid density = 15.1 ppg

Drill String Data

Drill Pipe: 19,077 ft, DP 5 inch, 19.50 ppf, Type G, NC50(XH), P

Heavy Weight: 60 ft, HW Grant Prideco, 5 inch, 49.7 ppf

Jar: 33 ft, Dailey Mechanical 6 ¼” OD, 2.25” ID

Heavy Weight: 300 ft, HW Grant Prideco, 5 inch, 49.7 ppf

Drill Collar: 390 ft, 8” X 2.5”, 7 H-90

Stabilizer: IBS, 5 ft, 10 5/8” FG, 8 X 2.5”

Drill Collar (Non-mag): 31 ft, NDC 8” X 2.5”, 7H-90

Stabilizer: IBS, 5 ft, 10 5/8” FG, 8 X 2.5”

Mud Motor: 30 ft, 8, 8 X 2.5”

Bit Sub: 3 ft, 6 x 2 ½”

Bit: 12.25”, Tri-Cone Bit, 447X

45
Mud Data

Name: 15.1 ppg OBM

Type: Diesel base fluid

Density: 15.1 ppg

Circulating System Data

Block Rating = 750 kips

Torque Rating = 50,000 ft-lbf

Surface Pressure = 6,000 psi

Surface Pressure Loss = 100 psi

Mud inlet temperature = 80 ℉

Pumps: Chosen from Pump catalog as shown in Table 8.1

Table 8.1: Pumps Description

Make Description Type Liner ID Rod OD Efficiency

Oil well A1400PT Triplex 5” None 100
Oil well A1700PT Triplex 6.5” None 100

Surface Ambient Temperature = 80 ℉

Mudline Temperature = 40 ℉

Temperature at TD = 279.5 ℉

8.1 TORQUE AND DRAG ANALYSIS

1. View the Effective Tension Plot and you will be asked to enter data that is required.
Use pump rate of 450 gpm.
2. The effective tension plot shows a tension limit line which represents the common
oil field usage. This line is when metal has stretched to the point that will not return
fully to its shape; it has been plastically deformed. Figure 8.1 shows the effective
tension plot.

46
 Figure 8.1: Effective Tension Plot

3. Observe the Torque Plot, where makeup torque is shown in Figure 8.2. If an
operation curve crosses Torque limit curve then the tool joints are liable to break.

Figure 8.2: Torque Plot

4. Observe the Tripping Out Stress plot as in Figure 8.3, displays the stresses in the
string while tripping out. This displays stresses in the outer string only.

47
 Figure 8.3: Tripping Out Plot
5. Observe the friction calibration plots from Figure 8.4 and Figure 8.5, as it provides
flexibility to calibrate friction factors. Friction Factor at particular point is
calculated.

Figure 8.4: Friction Calibration Plot (tripping in)

48
 Figure 8.5: Friction Calibration Plot (tripping Out)
6. After observing several plots, the string analysis is done as shown in Figure 8.6.
The cross marks in the fields shows that there are errors and hence they should be
modified by increasing the pump rate, making changes in Torque and Drag Analysis
tab.

Figure 8.6: String Analysis

49
8.2 HYDRAULICS ANALYSIS

1. Observe the minimum flow rate vs depth plot, it helps in determining the minimum
critical pump flow rate at which a cuttings bed will begin to form. Clearly the
cuttings are visible in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: Minimum Flow rate vs Depth plot

2. Select the Cuttings bed height vs depth plot. From Figure 8.8, we can see that
there is cuttings bed formed.

Figure 8.8: Cutting bed height vs depth plot

50
3. Increase the flow rate from 600 to 615 gpm, we can observe a little change in the
cutting bed height. Increase the flow rate from 625 gpm to 720 gpm, we observe
that there is no cutting bed height formed as shown in Figure 8.9, that affects the
string hydraulics.

Figure 8.9: Cutting height vs depth plot at 720 gpm

4. From the Figure 8.9, we can clearly say that the hole is clean. We can also clean
the hole by keeping the same pump rate by adding a booster pump as shown in
Figure 8.10.

Figure 8.10: Cutting height behaviour when booster pump is used

51
5. View the Hydraulics Summary, the data when shown in red as in Figure 8.11
indicates that there is some problem affecting the Hydraulics. Change the Pump
rates, Rate of Penetration, Rotary speed (RPM), maximum pressure, maximum
allowable rate in order to resolve the factors that are affecting the Drilling
hydraulics.

Figure 8.11: Hydraulics Summary

Thus, the analysis of drilling parameters affecting the Torque, Drag and Hydraulics
done on Well Plan software is a very simple process as the software is user friendly. By
performing this analysis, one can drill faster without safety and also has a chance for
better decision making.

52
 9. CONCLUSION

9.1 HOOK LOAD ANALYSIS

The effect of sheave friction is very obvious and, in this analysis, the maximum
encountered effect is 17.6%, this effect can be up to 19%. It is recommended to consider
the effects of sheave friction while planning a well and during the torque and drag
analysis and the weight of travelling block must be considered in order to accurately
determine the hook load roadmap.
Viscous drag forces also came as an important factor which has considerable high
effects on hook load especially when tripping in and in the hole of varying diameters. It
can affect the hook load while tripping in up to 50 % as we encountered in our case for
600 gpm flow rate, but even without circulation this could be up to 25%. For tripping
out it does not have much effect while circulating with higher flowrate. The main reason
behind this effect is the total effective velocity. The effective velocity is total effective
velocity considering the fluid velocity, string rotational velocity and tripping speed. It
is recommended to use the Well Plan software for torque and drag analysis which can
take care of various flow regimes together with combined velocities of string i.e. axial
and rotational.

9.2 TORQUE AND HYDRAULICS ANALYSIS

We saw that the viscous drag has more effects on free rotating torque than on
backreaming and on bottom torque. But the overall effects are not as much as were on
hook load. But it is still wise to consider the effects of viscous drag while planning a
well and establishing a torque and drag analysis.
We observe that WOB is mostly affecting torque while rotating on bottom but least on
backreaming and free rotating torque, although the effects are not too big, but still it
would be wise if we consider WOB while planning a well for torque analysis.

This chapter dealt with the sensitivity analysis of various parameters on torque, drag and
hydraulics. These parameters included:
1. Effect of friction factor correction on hook load using Well Plan.

2. Effect of Pump rate on cutting bed height in hydraulics using Well Plan.

5. Effects of viscous drag forces on hook load at various flow rates using Well Plan.

53
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Johancsik, C.A., Friesen, D.B., Dawson, R., “Torque and Drag in Directional Wells
– Prediction and Measurement”, Journal of Petroleum Technology, June 1984.
2. Sheppard, M.C., Wick, C., Burgess, T., “Designing Well Paths to Reduce Drag and
Torque”, SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1987.
3. Rabia. H., “Well Engineering and Construction”, June 2000.
4. Maidla, E.E., Wojtanowicz, A.K. “Field Comparison of 2-D and 3-D Methods for
Borehole Friction Evaluation in Directional Wells” SPE 16663 presented at SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, September 1987.
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Wells with Torque and Weight Data”, SPE Drilling Engineering, September 1988.
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string Tension and Torque Models for Monitoring Hole Conditions”, SPE Drilling
Engineering, September 1989.
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Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, October 1989.
8. Aarrestad, T.V. “Effect of Steerable BHA on Drag and Torque in Wells”, SPE
20929 presented at Europec 90, The Hague, Netherlands, October 1990.
9. Wilson, T.P., Yalcin, O. “Two Double Azimuth-Double S-Shaped Wells Planned
and Drilled Using Torque and Drag Modelling” SPE/IADC 23848 presented at the
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, February 1992.
10. Alfsen, T.E., Blikra, H., Tjotta, H. “Pushing the Limits for Extended-Reach
Drilling, New World Record Well from Platform Statfjord C, Well C2” SPE 26350
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston,
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11. Luke, G.R., Juvkam-Wold, H.C. “Determination of True Hook Load and Line
Tension under Dynamic Conditions”, SPE Drilling & Completion, December 1993.
12. Maidla, E.E., Wojtanowicz, A.K. “Field Method of Assessing Borehole Friction for
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Manama, Bahrain, March 1987.

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