Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588

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Atmospheric Pollution Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apr

Quantitative assessment of cyclists’ exposure to PM and BC on different

bike lanes
Zhaowen Qiu *, Xin Wang, Zhen Liu, Jianhao Luo
School of Automobile, Chang’an University, Chang’an Road, Xi’an, 710064, Shaanxi, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To assess the exposure of cyclists to particulate matter (PM) and black carbon (BC), real-time mobile monitoring
Bike lanes with portable instruments was carried out on typical bike lanes in Xi’an, China. The inhalation dose as well as the
Cyclists’ exposure deposition and distribution of different sizes of PM and BC in cyclists’ respiratory systems, were quantified using
BC and PM
a multiple-path particle dosimetry model (MPPD). A generalized linear regression model was fitted to explore the
Deposition dose
impact of different potentially influencing factors. The results of this case study in Xi’an showed that cyclists’
exposure to PM2.5 (70.9 ± 30.0 μg m− 3) and BC (7.5 ± 5.1 μg m− 3) was marked by great temporal and spatial
variability along the sampled urban routes, and their exposure hotspots generally consisted of intersections,
temporary parking sites for vehicles, and diesel vehicles. Among the three types of bike lanes, cyclists were
exposed to the lowest PM2.5 (62.9 ± 29.1 μg m− 3) and BC (6.86 ± 4.0 μg m− 3) concentrations on bike boule­
vards. The regression results revealed that certain factors, namely bike lanes, vegetation, and meteorological
conditions, are correlated with cyclists’ exposure to PM2.5. For their BC exposure, traffic volume was the pre­
dominant predictor. Concerning their regional deposition in the cyclists’ respiratory system, PM2.5 was deposited
to a greater extent in the head region (90%) than BC, the latter being deposited primarily in the pulmonary
region (43%). This finding of greater BC deposition in the pulmonary region bolsters the need to incorporate BC
into the current air-quality index of urban areas.

1. Introduction
In recent years, bike sharing systems have been vigorously promoted
worldwide. Cycling as a flexible way of commuting not only lets one
arrive at a destination quickly but also increases the physical activity of
commuters compared with passive modes of transportation, thereby
alleviating modern people’s health problems stemming from insufficient
exercises, such as cervical spondylosis and obesity (Lindström 2008).
Increasingly, people are willing to choose bikes to commute in urban
areas. Yet, these cyclists are usually near traffic emission sources and are
directly exposed to traffic-related air pollution (TRAP). Accordingly, the
health benefits gained via physical exercise may be offset by TRAP, and
cycling in cities may even adversely affect physical health (Tainio et al.,
2016; Barzeghar et al., 2020). In this respect, both particulate matter
(PM) and black carbon (BC), being predominant forms of traffic-related
pollution, may lead to serious health hazards in cyclists. The WHO
report stated that PM is a common cause of the cardiovascular disease
(WHO 2016), because it can exacerbate inflammatory diseases, such as
asthma and acute bronchitis (Sehlstedt et al., 2010; Feng et al., 2016).
BC, one of the main pollutants emitted by motor vehicles, is also related
to the prevalence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases; recent
research has shown that high BC exposure levels can cause carotid
arteriosclerosis (Magalhaes et al., 2018), respiratory problems (Ali et al.,
2021). In addition, there was a positive association between long-term
exposure to BC and increased mortality risk (Yang et al., 2021). Over
the last few years, the number of motor vehicles has increased rapidly in
Chinese cities, leading to more severe traffic pollution conditions (Le
Vine et al., 2018). Therefore, it is imperative to determine the PM and
BC exposure levels of cyclists cycling alongside urban roads and the key
factors influencing them.
Many researchers have investigated the pollution exposure of cyclists
in comparison with several modes of transportation (public trans­
portation, cars, walking, etc.), finding that while cyclists’ exposure
concentration was not always the highest, their pollutant inhalation
doses were the greatest (Lin et al., 2020; Liang et al., 2019; Nyhan et al.,
2014; Okokon et al., 2017). In earlier work by Int Panis et al. (2010), the

Peer review under responsibility of Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: qzw@chd.edu.cn (Z. Qiu), 2734628324@qq.com (X. Wang), liuzhen_1208@126.com (Z. Liu), 2019122106@chd.edu.cn (J. Luo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101588
Received 11 July 2022; Received in revised form 27 October 2022; Accepted 28 October 2022
Available online 2 November 2022
1309-1042/© 2022 Turkish National Committee for Air Pollution Research and Control. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Qiu et al.
PM2.5-inhaled doses of people who biked or drove when commuting in
the Belgian cities of Brussels, Louvain-la-Neuve, and Mol were respec­
tively 5.9, 8.0, and 7.4 μg km− 1, with both modes of commuting
incurred similar PM2.5 exposure concentrations in all three cities.
Further, the amount of pollutants entering different parts of the respi­
ratory system also can differentially impact commuters’ health. For
example, Manojkumar et al. (2019) evaluated the PM deposition dose in
the body by applying a multiple-path particle dosimetry (MPPD) model
when people are in static conditions; they found that PM10 is highly
deposited in head (H) and tracheobronchial (TB) regions, whereas PM2.5
and PM1 undergo maximum deposition in the alveolar region. When
they assessed indoor air exposure at residential homes, Madureira et al.
(2020) found that smaller particles (PM2.5 and UFP) had higher depo­
sition fractions in pulmonary (P) area than did the larger-sized PM10.
The health risk caused by PM and BC mainly arises from their particle
size distribution (exposed surface area) and particle deposition in res­
piratory system, the extent of which is determined by respiratory pa­
rameters, lung morphology, and particle characteristics (Manojkumar
et al., 2019; Miller et al., 2016; Hofmann 2011). Therefore, it is
imperative to evaluate the deposition of PM in the human respiratory
tract regions: head (H), tracheobronchial (TB), and pulmonary (P).
However, to our best knowledge, published studies of the deposition
dose in different body areas and the distribution of distinct air pollutants
in the respiratory system of cyclists remain surprisingly limited
(Kecorius et al., 2019).
Some research has demonstrated that cyclists’ exposure to BC and
PM mainly depends on a suite of factors: traffic variables (i.e., vehicle
flow, fleet composition, etc.) (Hankey and Marshall 2015; Brand et al.,
2019; Luengo-Oroz and Reis 2019; Bertrand et al., 2020), meteorolog­
ical factors (i.e., temperature, wind direction, wind speed, humidity,
etc.), and the street type and road configuration (i.e., bike lane type,
road grade, canyon street, green belt) (MacNaughton et al., 2014; Pat­
tinson et al., 2017; Hofman et al., 2018). Furthermore, among these
influencing factors, that street functional class, and vegetation barriers
are closely correlated with the BC and PM exposure levels of cyclists.
Hankey and Marshall (2015) have pointed out that BC exposure is
correlated with the street type and declines with distance from major
roads. Both Tong et al. (2015) and Brantley et al. (2014) reported that
vegetation barriers reduced the near-road BC and PM2.5 concentrations.
Fig. 1. Experimental site and cycling route sampled in Xi’an, China.
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Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588
However, far less research has examined whether the type of bike lane
used influences PM and BC exposure levels.
In this study, exposure concentrations of PM2.5 and BC during bicycle
commutes were measured using mobile monitoring along three typical
bike route types (Fig. 2) in Xi’an, China. The main objectives of this
study were threefold: (a) To perform in-situ measurement surveys to
determine spatiotemporal variation in cyclists’ exposure to PM and BC
on bike lanes; (b) To explore the impact of meteorological factors, traffic
flow, traffic infrastructure, bike lane types, and vegetation on the
exhibited cyclist exposure.; (c) To quantify the deposition dose in
different areas of the body and the distribution of various air pollutants
(i.e., PM and BC) in the respiratory system of cyclists.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study site
The experiment was conducted in Xi’an, China, the largest city in
northwestern China. The sampling route (6.3 km), seen in Fig. 1, was
chosen to represent a typical route taken by cyclists within this city,
which includes multiples types of bike lanes as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Dedicated cycle lane with green belt separation from motor vehicles
(BLA, 2.3 km), mixed cycle lane without separation from motor vehicles
(BLB, 2.1 km), shared-road cycle lane with buses (BLC, 1.9 km). The
route covered most of the urban hotspots for exposure, passing through
multiple intersections, pedestrian bridges, roundabouts, and a tunnel.
Both small and medium-sized cars (about 90%) dominate traffic flow on
this route, with relatively fewer diesel cars (about 9%) (Wang et al.,
2021).
Seven days (suitable for cycling) were selected for individual mobile
monitoring activities in November 2020. Each sampling day was tested
three times in three time periods (7:30–9:30 a.m., 12:00–2:00 p.m., and
5:30–7:30 p.m.), and a total of 21 tests were conducted. on average, one
complete route trip typically took ca. 40 min. The real duration varied
depending on the participants’ cycling speed, the time of day, and the
traffic conditions. The monitoring date, meteorological data and back­
ground concentration were shown in Table 1.
Z. Qiu et al. Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588

which the ONA threshold (ΔATN) is set to 0.01. This is an adaptive time
averaging algorithm that reduces the occurrence of negative values due
to high frequency sampling and low BC concentrations (Hagler et al.,
2011). However, the membrane sampling and transmission method is
subject to a “loading effect” and BC particles inevitably accumulate on
the surface of the filter belt, resulting in an underestimation of BC
concentration. The MA-200 black carbon meter is calibrated using the
“dual-spot load compensation” method (Drinovec et al., 2015) to obtain
a compensated BC concentration based on light-absorption coefficients
and the empirical BC attenuation coefficient(σ) at 880 nm of 10.12 m2
g− 1 (this given by the manufacturer), as follows:
babs,λ
BC = (1)
σλ

where babs,λ is the light-absorption coefficient of BC (10− 6 m− 1); BC

Fig. 2. Schematics of the three types of bike lanes monitored for cyclists’
pollution exposure.
2.2. Instrumentation
The BC mass concentrations were measured by a hand-held black
carbon aerosol monitor (MicroAeth 200, AethLabs, USA) with sample
flow rate and time resolution set at 100 mL min-1 and 5 s, respectively.
The MA200 continuously measures the attenuation of transmitted light
through the tetrafluoroethylene filter tape where the particles are
deposited, and performs real-time optical apportionment at five wave-
lengths (375 nm, 470 nm, 528 nm, 625 nm, and 880 nm). The raw
mass concentration data from BC needs to be uploaded to the Aeth­
Labsde dashboard for optical noise attenuation (ONA) smoothing, for
denotes the mass concentration of BC (ng m− 3); σ λ is the mass specific
attenuation at the cross section (m2 g− 1) for BC particles accumulated at
a given spot.
In the experiment, PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 mass concentrations were
monitored and recorded at a 6-s resolution by a portable Dust Monitor
(Model 11-A, GRIMM, Germany). Each rider wore a GPS watch (Runner
2 Cardio, Tom Tom NV, 165 Holland) that collected heart rate (HR) and
geolocation information. Physiological data (height, weight, age) were
recorded for all 21 experimenters (all university students: 12 males, 9
females, whose average age was 23.7 ± 1.5 years). The background
concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 were obtained from the regional air
pollution monitoring station (Xiaozhai Station, about 0.4 km from the
study area). A miniature camera mounted on a bicycle (Y AS.1117,
Xiaoyi City, China) recorded real-time traffic scenes and local traffic
congestions to facilitate consideration of the correlation between air
pollution hotspots and in-camera events to uncover typical air pollution
hotspots. On the campus of Chang’an University nearby, meteorological
conditions were collected in an open area by a meteorological instru­
ment (Model 4500NV, Kestrel & NK, USA).
2.3. Data analysis
We used IBM SPSS Statistics®22 for descriptive statistics, with a 95%
confidence interval (CI) derived for the means, along with their standard
deviations (SD). The means between the different groups were
compared with a two-sample t-test. A generalized linear model was used
to assess the potential influence of bike lane type, vegetation, traffic

Table 1
Monitoring date, meteorological data and background concentration.
Date Time period Temperature (◦ C) Wind speed (m s− 1) Relative humidity (%) PM10 background PM2.5 background
（μg m− 3） （μg m− 3）

Nov 3, 2020 Morning Peak 10.4 0.9 55.1 110 50

midday 15.0 1.4 39.9 112 45
Evening rush 15.8 0.4 39.6 102 48
Nov 4, 2020 Morning Peak 12.0 0.0 63.6 139 72
midday 16.1 1.3 43.9 169 88
Evening rush 15.9 0.0 50.2 162 93
Nov 6, 2020 Morning Peak 12.4 0.4 56.9 75 21
midday 19.6 1.6 21.4 81 14
Evening rush 14.4 0.0 34.0 75 16
Nov 7, 2020 Morning Peak 11.9 0.7 51.1 91 34
midday 20.6 1.2 30.2 92 31
Evening rush 14.7 0.2 34.4 103 12
Nov 8, 2020 Morning Peak 12.0 0.6 50.3 139 48
midday 19.7 1.5 29.8 135 59
Evening rush 15.3 0.3 32.6 138 66
Nov 9, 2020 Morning Peak 17.6 0.6 53.7 215 108
midday 19.0 1.5 36.9 198 106
Evening rush 16.2 0.3 39.3 103 83
Nov 10, 2020 Morning Peak 11.4 0.2 62.9 176 104
midday 18.5 0.9 42.3 200 116
Evening rush 16.2 0.1 47.1 163 98

3
Z. Qiu et al.
volume, meteorological conditions, and background concentrations, as
well as interaction effects between these variables, on cyclists’ exposure
to PM2.5 or BC. Figures were drawn in Origin®9.5c, while ArcGIS®10.5
was used to produce the pollutant concentration maps.
2.4. Multiple-path particle dosimetry model (MPPD)
The deposition fraction (DF) is a commonly used index in human
anatomy for calculating the deposition of a given pollutant. It is simply
the ratio of particles of a specific size deposited on a specific part to the
number of particles of a specific size that enter the human respiratory
tract, with the head (H) and human respiratory tract (HRT) (tracheo­
bronchial [TB] and pulmonary [P]) used mainly.
Both the International Commission for Radiological Protection
model (ICRP) and the MPPD model can calculate the DF. However, ICRP
is a semi-empirical model, and its calculation formula is derived from
fitting experiments and theoretical results. It only considers a simple
pulmonary morphology and structure, ignoring the branch structure of
the pulmonary (Hofmann 2011). The MPPD model developed by
Applied Research Associates, Inc. is a single-path and multi-path model
based on the actual measured value of a single airway, so it can represent
the asymmetric branching pattern of the pulmonary region. Therefore,
both the dose and health risk can be assessed more robustly by the MPPD
model, which can also evaluate particles 0.01–20 μm in size.
In the MPPD, it is necessary to first specify the human airway
morphology, then the stochastic pulmonary model (60th percentile),
after which the key parameters are entered: (1) Particle density is 1.5 g
cm− 3, by default (Hu et al. 2012); because the default particulate matter
is spherical, the shape factor is 1, and thus the diameters of PM10, PM2.5,
PM1 are respectively 10 mm, 2.5 mm, 1.0 mm. For BC, previous studies
have shown that the average particle size of BC at urban and transport
sites is approximately 0.15 μm (Cheng et al., 2014; Hitzenberger and
Tohno, 2001), so this study uses 0.15 μm to represent the particle size of
BC. (2) Respiratory physiological parameters include tidal volume (TV),
breathing frequency (BF), functional residual capacity (FRC), and upper
respiratory tract volume (URTV) (Yin et al., 2017; Roy et al., 1991),
whose values are in Table 2. (3) Personal attributes consisted of age,
height, weight, and sex.
MPPD: Multiple-path particle dosimetry model.
The above parameters were entered to derive the deposition fraction
(DF) of PM and BC in the body. Next, the formula of Goel et al. (2018)
was applied to evaluate the deposition dose.
∑t
Deposition = DF i=1 (Ci × VE) (2)
where DF is the deposition fraction of the particles; Ci is the average
concentration of the particles measured per trip (μg m− 3); T is the
duration of each completed trip (min), and; VE denotes the per-minute
ventilation (L min− 1), which we calculated with easy-to-measure vari­
ables using the equations developed by Zuurbier et al. (2009):
male : VE = e1.03+(0.021×HR) (3)
female : VE = e− 0.57+(0.023×HR)
(4)
where heart rate (HR) is in beats per minute (bpm).
Table 2
Input values specified for the MPPD model.
TV (ml) BF (breaths min− 1) FRC (ml) URTV (ml)
Male 1250 26 3235 50
Female 992 33 2926 40
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Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Spatial and temporal distribution of PM and BC concentrations to
which cyclists are exposed
A total of 21 mobile monitoring campaigns were carried out during
the 7-day sampling period for a total monitoring journey of 132 km,
which took ca. 14 h to complete (start-to-end). Cyclists were exposed to
an average concentration of PM10, PM2.5, PM1, and BC of 168 ± 70.3,
70.9 ± 30.0, 41.5 ± 23.2, and 7.5 ± 5.1 μg m− 3, respectively. The
average mass concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 were observed at levels
much higher than their permissible thresholds (i.e., PM2.5, 35 μg m− 3;
PM10, 70 μg m− 3) under China’s official ambient air quality standard
(NAAQS: GB3095-2012).
Fig. 3 shows the conditions associated with high exposure to PM2.5
and BC incurred by the cyclists. High pollutant concentrations were
typically associated with specific events, such as stopping at traffic
lights, roadwork projects, and the presence of idling trucks. The spatial
distributions of PM2.5 and BC geo-located concentrations for cyclists are
depicted in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. Evidently, for both pollutants,
their concentrations were generally consistent in space, especially
regarding the locations of pollution hotspots, which tended to occur at
intersections near heavy traffic, underpasses, roundabouts, crossing
bridges, and bus stops next to the roadside. In these pollution hotspots,
vehicles were generally under ‘stop-and-go’ driving conditions charac­
terized by a higher acceleration and engine speed, which could increase
the PM levels. This key finding highlights the importance of avoiding
these locations when selecting routes and designing cycling infrastruc­
ture. In addition, when compared with PM (Fig. 4), there were more
short-lived spikes in exposure concentrations, denoted in bright red.
Combining the BC time-series graphs and video image recognition hot­
spots revealed these many peak BC concentrations were caused by high-
emission vehicles and heavy traffic (Fig. 5). This result implied a strong
correlation between BC concentrations and traffic volume, most likely
because motor vehicle exhaust is the main source of BC.
In Fig. 6, the mobile measurements are grouped according to the bike
lane type. Among the three types, cyclists’ exposure was lowest on the
BLA (PM2.5, 62.9 ± 29.1 μg m− 3; BC, 6.86 ± 4.0 μg m− 3), followed by
the BLC (PM2.5, 70.6 ± 30.2 μg m− 3; BC, 8.2 ± 5.0 μg m− 3), with the
highest concentration on the BLB (PM2.5, 75.8 ± 29.2 μg m− 3; BC, 9.21
± 4.6 μg m− 3) (Qiu et al., 2019a, 2019b). observed similar results that
the lowest pollutant exposure concentrations were observed on an open
street with buses and bikes lane. This ranking could be explained by the
street architecture of the three bike lanes: people cycling on the BLA type
were always kept at some distance from driving vehicles, whereas cy­
clists on BLB and BLC were directly exposed to vehicles’ exhaust gas, and
along most of the BLA there were plants between it and the motorway.
Trees and other vegetation have been shown to reduce regional air
pollution levels through the interception of airborne particles or uptake
of gaseous air pollution via their leaf surfaces (Janhäll, 2015). Former
study found that isolated bicycle infrastructure showed 300% lower BC
and 20% lower UFP concentrations in Antwerp, Belgium, when
compared to a cycling route next to road traffic (Hofman et al., 2018). In
terms of effect size, cyclists on the BLA were exposed to PM2.5 levels that
were 16.8% and 10.7% lower than on BLB and BLC, respectively. Con­
cerning BC, its exposure concentration on the BLA was 25.4% and 18.2%
lower than that on BLB and BLC, respectively. Hence, compared with
PM2.5, there is a greater effect of bike lane type on exposure to BC when
cycling, perhaps because of the different sources of these two pollutants.
Besides vehicle emissions, the bulk of PM comes from non-emission
sources, such as resuspended surface dust, tire and brake wear, etc.
(Gibson et al., 2014); however, BC is closely related to traffic emissions
(Wu et al., 2015). Overall, these results suggest that given the distinct
distributions of PM2.5 and BC concentrations on different bike lanes, the
establishment of a network of bike routes should aim to separate them
from motor vehicle roads as much as possible to reduce cyclists’
Z. Qiu et al. Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588

Fig. 3. PM and BC concentration time series on Nov 3, 2020, morning.

Fig. 4. PM2.5 concentration time series on Nov 3, 2020, morning.

exposure to PM2.5 and BC effectively. As concluded in a former study
Hofman et al. (2018): “Our results strengthen the body of evidence in
favour of further policy investments in isolated bicycle infrastructure."
In Fig. 7, mobile measurements are grouped according to three time
periods. According to a t-test (t-test, p < 0.05) performed on the
pollutant data for the three time periods of the day, on the sampling day
where the experiment was done, we found that the average concentra­
tion of pollutants during the morning and evening peak periods was
considerably higher than the average concentration during the midday
period. In the morning peak, for example, the average PM10 concen­
tration observed during this period was 19.7% higher (171.9 μg m− 3)
than during the midday (143.6 μg m− 3), the PM2.5 concentration was
17.7% higher (73.0 μg m− 3) than during the midday (62.0 μg m− 3), PM1
was 11.3% higher in the morning (41.3 μg m− 3) than during the midday
(37.1 μg m− 3), and BC was 18.6% higher in the morning (8.3 μg m− 3)
than in the midday (7.0 μg m− 3). This may be due to differences in
morning and evening peak traffic flows and meteorological conditions
compared to the midday period. The average wind speed during the
sampling period was 0.5 m s− 1 in the morning peak, 1.3 m s− 1 in the
midday, and 0.2 m s− 1 in the evening peak. The higher average wind
speed in the midday provided a more favorable condition for the dilu­
tion and dispersion of pollutants, thus reducing the pollutant

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Z. Qiu et al. Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588

Fig. 5. BC concentration time series on Nov 3, 2020, morning.

Fig. 6. Boxplots of the PM and BC concentrations in the three types of bike lanes. Refer to Fig. 2 for the meaning of BLA, BLB and BLC.

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Z. Qiu et al. Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588

Fig. 7. Distribution of PM and BC concentrations at different time periods.

concentrations in the midday.

Table 3
Generalized linear model results testing pollution levels as function of bike lane
3.2. Factors influencing concentrations of PMs and BC
type, traffic volume, background levels, meteorological conditions (TP, WS, and
RH), and vegetation.
Applying the generalized linear regression model let us assess how
PM2.5 BC
meteorological factors, vegetation, bike lane type, and traffic flow
affected the concentrations of PM2.5 and BC on bike lanes in Xi’an. For β1 P-value β2 P-value
this analysis, the BLA type served as the reference category. The amount Constant 26.752 <0.001 − 3.299 <0.001
of vegetation between the bike lane and the road was assessed for each Bike lane: BLA 0 NA 0 NA
data point, and scored as follows: 0 = no vegetation, 1 = sparse vege­ Bike lane: BLB 5.139 <0.001 0.714 <0.001
Bike lane: BLC 2.814 = 0.11 0.517
tation (one row of bushes or trees with trunk diameter <15 cm), 2 =
<0.001
Temperature ¡1.393 <0.001 ¡0.165 <0.001
moderate vegetation (one row of trees with trunk diameter >15 cm), Wind speed ¡3.305 <0.001 ¡1.263 <0.001
and 3 = dense vegetation (two or more rows of trees and bushes). No Relative humidity ¡0.345 <0.001 0.027 0.117
data were available for BC background concentrations, but since BC is a Traffic volume 0.005 0.427 0.010 <0.001
crucial component of PM2.5, the latter’s background concentration could Vegetation amount ¡3.156 <0.001 − 0.223 0.087
Background concentration 0.699 <0.001 0.065 <0.001
be used instead (Qiu et al., 2019a, 2019b). The Akaike information
criterion (AIC) was used to estimate the model goodness-of-fit given the
number of predictors (explanatory) variables and to distinguish their contributing factor in determining the level of personal exposure. The
ideal combination (i.e., the model with the lowest AIC). The regression amount of vegetation present on a bike lane led to reductions in the
results are in Table 3. PM2.5 levels along bike lanes: a one-unit increase in vegetation (e.g.,
The types of bike lanes were important factors influencing both BC from sparse to moderate vegetation) was associated with a 3.6 μg m− 3
and PM2.5 levels. Notably, BC was predicted to increase by 27.1% in BLB decrease in PM2.5. This may be due to the dust retention effect of
and 19.6% in BLC when compared with BLA, while PM2.5 was predicted vegetation, where trees and other vegetation can reduce regional air
to increase by 15.2% in BLB and 8.2% in BLC after controlling for the pollution levels by intercepting airborne particles or absorbing gaseous
effects of traffic volume, background concentration, and vegetation. air pollution through the leaf surface, while low vegetation close to
Among the covariates, background concentration acted as a positive pollution sources can improve air quality by increasing deposition
confounder; For every 1 μg m− 3 increase in background PM2.5 concen­ (Janhäll, 2015). In addition, the increase in vegetation will lead to wider
tration, there is a 0.699 μg m− 3 change in local PM2.5 concentration and streets, increased distance from traffic exhaust sources and better
a 0.065 μg m− 3 change in local BC. This is consistent with the findings of ventilation, resulting in lower exposure to pollution. Traffic volume had
Hofman et al. (2018), where ambient concentration was an important

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Z. Qiu et al. Atmospheric Pollution Research 13 (2022) 101588

a significant effect on BC only, indicating that BC is a more reliable
predictor of on-road traffic’s influence on cyclists’ exposure. Accord­
ingly, we recommend that cyclists choose commuting routes with less
traffic flow to reduce their exposure to BC effectively. Although traffic
emissions are known to contribute to atmospheric of PM2.5, they were
not significantly related to traffic volume in this study, which could be
due to its regional background concentration. With respect to meteo­
rological conditions’ influence, both TP and WS were important nega­
tive predictors of BC and PM2.5 concentrations. This is consistent with
previous studies (Qiu et al., 2019a, 2019b). Lower temperatures in­
crease engine emissions (Tian et al., 2014) and may be detrimental to
the dispersion of pollutants. Work by Jarjour et al. (2013) demonstrated
that high wind speeds contribute to the diffusion and dilution of pol­
lutants to which cyclists are exposed. In the PM2.5 model, RH was also a
significant explanatory variable; many studies have shown that
increased relative humidity facilitates the deposition of formed particles
(e.g., Schneider et al., 2015).
3.3. Deposition dose for cyclist exposure
A total of 21 people participated in this experiment, whose cycling
travel time on route averaged 37.5 ± 5.1 min. The VE (L min− 1) of males
(females) was 29.8 ± 10.6 (23.2 ± 7.6) L min− 1. Although the mean age
(t-test, P = 0.924) and the mean cycling time (t-test, P = 0.951) were
similar between the male and female individuals, the VE was signifi­
cantly different the sexes while cycling (t-test, P < 0.001).
Results for the total and regional deposition dose and deposition
fractions of PM10, PM2.5, PM1, and BC are presented in Table 4. As ex­
pected, the DF (male/female) in the head region was higher for PM10
(99.7%/99.7%) when compared to PM2.5 (87.5%/88.2%), PM1 (52.1%/
52.7%), and BC (5.5%/5.6%). In the case of tracheobronchial (TB), the
ranked order of deposition fractions was: BC (7.5%/7.3%) > PM1
(4.8%/4.8%) > PM2.5 (3.4%/3.6%) > PM10 (0.3%/0.3%), with the same
ranking found for pulmonary (P): BC (9.9%/8.8%) > PM1 (6.0%/4.9%)
> PM2.5 (5.9%/4.9%) > PM10 (0/0). This suggests that coarse particles
are deposited almost exclusively in the head, while fine particles, in
contrast, dominate the airways and lungs. Gao et al. (2022) and Lv et al.
(2021) assessed deposition in children and adolescents separately and
were in good agreement with our observations, suggesting that the
ordering of deposition of different particle sizes in the respiratory system
may be independent of age and sex. The variation in DFs with varying
particle sizes depended largely on the deposition mechanisms in the
respiratory system. A larger particle size results in augmented rates of
gravitational settling and inertial deposition whereas a smaller particle
size is associated with an increased rate of diffusional deposition (Hof­
mann, 2011). A study in Beijing showed significant cardiovascular ef­
fects of PM0.1 and PM1-2.5 (Liu et al., 2013); furthermore, BC may be
more harmful than other components of PM2.5 and PM2.5 mass overall
(Luben et al., 2017). Smaller particles can penetrate deeper into the
body’s lungs while carrying more mutagens, bypassing innate clearance
mechanisms, reaching the bloodstream, and translocating to other or­
gans (Hei, 2013).
Furthermore, using Table 4 data (deposition dose), the percentage
contributions (%) of different PM fractions for the total deposition doses
in the head, tracheobronchial and pulmonary regions were derived
(Fig. 8). These results emphasized the enhanced deposition of finer
particles in the tracheobronchial and pulmonary region than the head
(particularly for BC). Many researchers have demonstrated that the
adverse effects of inhaled PM increase as its particle size decreases (Li
et al., 2016; Islam et al., 2017), thus highlighting the negative effects of
BC. The dominant percentage deposition of BC in the pulmonary region
has been proven to cause severe respiratory health problems and pul­
monary injury (Feng et al., 2016).
We also found that the deposited dose of males surpassed that of
females, a result consistent with the conclusions of other studies (e.g.,
Hussein et al. 2013). The proportion of deposited BC material in the
body overall, in the head, tracheobronchial region, and pulmonary re­
gion was respectively 10.3%, 11.5%, 24%, and 17% higher in males than
females. In general, the variation in deposition doses between males and
females in the present study could be explained by their sex-related
discrepancies in per-minute ventilation and deposition fractions
calculated.
4. Conclusions
To determine the exposure of cyclists to PM and BC, we conducted a
2-week mobile monitoring activity experiment on three types of bike
lanes in Xi’an. The diurnal variation of PM and BC, the differing impact
of bike lane type and road infrastructure on them were summarized. We
fit a generalized linear model to explain how their background con­
centrations, local meteorological conditions, and traffic factors influ­
enced the concentration of PM and BC on the cycling route. The
following conclusions were drawn.
The hotspots for cyclists’ exposure to PM and BC concentrations
occur mainly at traffic lights, roadwork projects, where trucks are, in­
tersections near heavy traffic, underpasses, roundabouts, crossing
bridges, and bus stops next to the roadside. Furthermore, compared with
PM2.5, the levels of BC were more sensitive to vehicle emissions.
The separated bike lane offers clear advantages in comparison with
the cycling lane along a traffic roadside, in that cyclists on the BLA were
exposed to 16.8% and 10.7% less PM2.5 pollution than while riding

Table 4
Estimated deposition doses and fractions of PM and BC in the respiratory system.
Head TB P Total

Deposition dose (μg)/Deposition fraction [DF]

PM10
Male 175.2/0.997 0.5/0.003 0/0 175.7/1
Female 158.2/0.997 0.4/0.003 0/0 158.6/1
PM2.5
Male 64.9/0.875 2.5/0.034 4.4/0.059 71.8/0.968
Female 59.00.882 2.4/0.036 3.3/0.049 64.8/0.967
PM1
Male 22.6/0.521 2.1/0.048 2.6/0.060 27.3/0.629
Female 20.6/0.527 1.9/0.048 1.9/0.049 24.5/0.624
BC Fig. 8. Percentage contributions of PM fractions (PM1, PM2.5, PM10, BC) in total
Male 0.4/0.055 0.6/0.075 0.8/0.099 1.8/0.229
deposition doses in head, tracheobronchial (TB), and pulmonary (P) regions in
Female 0.3/0.056 0.5/0.073 0.6/0.088 1.5/0.217
male/female cyclists.

8
Z. Qiu et al.
along BLB and BLC, respectively. For BC, its exposure concentration on
the BLA was 25.4% lower than on BLB and 18.2% lower than on the BLC,
respectively. Background concentration acted as a positive confounder
for the PM2.5 and BC concentrations. More vegetation present led to
reductions in PM2.5 levels in the bike lanes. A one-unit increase in the
amount of vegetation (e.g., going from sparse to moderate vegetation)
was associated with a 3.6 μg m− 3 decrease in PM2.5, but vegetation was
not significantly related to the BC concentration. Being a component of
traffic emissions, BC was significantly related to traffic volume, but
PM2.5 was not. Both TP and WS negatively influenced the BC and PM2.5
concentrations, while RH only exerted a negative influence on PM2.5.
The MPPD model suggested that the total deposition fractions are
higher for PM10 vis-à-vis those of PM2.5, PM1, and BC. Specifically, PM10,
PM2.5, and PM1 had a higher regional deposition fraction in the head
region, while for BC it was higher in the pulmonary region. Clearly, the
smaller particles (i.e., BC) will penetrate deeper into the airways,
causing potential serious harm to the human body. Furthermore, the
deposition dose was higher in males than females for all particle size
fractions along the same travel route—a disparity likely related to the
elevated per-minute ventilation rates and larger bodies of males—des­
pite no significant difference in their age or cycling speeds. Hence, for
males, the health benefits of cycling can be partly offset by higher
inhaled pollutant doses.
Author contributions
Zhaowen Qiu planned the study and contributed the main ideas;
Zhaowen Qiu and Jianhao Luo were principally responsible for the
writing of the manuscript; Xin Wang, Zhen Liu and Jianhao Luo per­
formed the experiments and analyzed the data.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Founda­
tion of China (Grant No. 52072045) and the Natural Science Basic
Research Plan in Shaanxi Province of China (Grant No. 2020JM-225).
We thank both the technicians and participating volunteers for their
valuable assistance and cooperation in conducting the practical
experiments.
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