S T AT I S T I C S

-Involves the collection,organization, summarization,presentation,and interpretation of data.

2 BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS- It is used to describe the basic features of the data in a study.
They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics
analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS- a branch of statistics that interprets and draws conclusions.

RAW DATA- is the data collected in original form

RANGE- is the difference of the highest value and the lowest value in a distribution.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION- is the organization of data in a tabular form, using mutually
exclusive classes showing the number of observations in each.
CLASS LIMITS (or APPARENT LIMITS)- is the highest and lowest value describing a class.
CLASS BOUNDARIES (or REAL LIMITS)- is the upper and lower values of a class for group
frequency distribution whose values has additional decimal place more than the class limits and
end with the digit 5.
INTERVAL (or width)- is the distance between the class lower boundary and it is denoted by the
symbol i.
FREQUENCY (f)- is the number of values in a specific class of a frequency distribution.
PERCENTAGE- is obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 100%.
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (cf)- is the sum of the frequency accumulated up to the upper
boundary of a class in a frequency distribution.
MIDPOINT- is the point halfway between the class limits of each class and is representative of the
data within that class.

Measure of Central Tendency (AVERAGE)

Median - the value of the middle when all the elements in a set of data are organized in ascending
order.
- The middle number if n is odd
- The mean of the two middle number if n is even.

Find the median of the data in the ff. lists.

Example a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12.

Solution:
Rank the numbers from smallest to largest : 1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21.
Answer: The middle number is 9
9 is the median.

Rank the numbers from smallest to largest : 23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108.

Answer: The two middle numbers are 77 and 89

The median = 77+89 = 83
2
The median = 83

MODE of a lists of numbers is pre number that occurs most frequently.

Example a. 18, 15, 16, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21.

Answer: The number 15 occurs more often than the other numbers.
15 the MODE.

Example b. 2, 5, 8, 9 11, 4, 7, 23

Answer: NO Mode, because no number occurs more after than the others.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1.NOMINAL SCALE
- Data that contain of names, labels, or categories only
- The data cannot be arranged in an ordering arrangement.
- Numbers or symbols are used to categorize an object or person to classify the group they
belong.
EXAMPLES: Nationality (Filipino, American, Japanese, …etc.)

2.ORDINAL SCALE
- Data comprise the properties of nominal level.
- The data can be organized in an ordering scheme or ranked.
- The difference between the values of the cannot identified. The interval is insignificant.
 EXAMPLE; Military Ranks (general,colonel,major)
Ranks in a contest (1st runner up, 2nd runner up, etc.).

3.INTERVAL SCALE
- Data cover the properties of ordinal level.
- Data values can be ranked.
- The difference between the values of the data are of indentified, sizes.
- The “zero” does not imply the absence of characteristics.
- The interval between the values has meaning.
EXAMPLES: Intelligence Quotient (75,100, and so on)
Temperature (Celsius/Fahrenheit ).

4. RATIO SCALE
- Data have the properties of interval level.
- Data “zero” shows the absence of the characteristics under consideration.
- The ratio of data values has significances.
examples: weight in Kilograms or pounds, height in meters.

HOW TO GET SAMPLE SIZE?

sample size of a population that must be taken for a specific study. This formula is only used when
the sample size unknown; for example, since things like IQ scores tend to follow a predictable
distribution pattern, it is easy to find an appropriate sample size for studying the topic. Using the
formula, statistician can come up with a reliable sample size to study a given population without
having to study a given population without having to study a given population individually.
n= N
1+Ne²
Where: n = sample size
N = population
e = margin of error
METHODS OF PRESENTATION DATA
Presentation of data is described as an organization of information such as measurements,
numbers, names, observations, etc. in a certain way.
Specifically, there are three ways of presenting a summary of data. These are:
•TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
This is the technique in a paragraph form. In this technique, it does not necessary mean that the
presentation contain of words only but figures can also be utilized as part of the presentation.

2. TABULAR PRESENTATION
This is another way in presenting data. In this technique, the data are summarized using tables. A
table usually used is on the Frequency and Percentage Distribution. It is a table presenting the
frequency and percentage sharing of nominal data.
3. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
There are many types of graphs such as line graph, bar graph, pictograph, pie chart, etc.
a. LINE GRAPH
It shows associations between two or more sets of quantities. In this technique, the values are
plotted using dots which are called “markers” to be connected together by line segments.
b. BAR GRAPH
It is the graphical method in which each value in the data is represented by rectangular bars
C. PICTOGRAPH
This is a graphical technique that expresses its meaning through its pictorial similarity to a physical
object. Each object used in pictograph stands for corresponding measure.
d. PIE CHART
This is the type of graphical presentation in which a circle (or sometimes a cylinder) is divided into
several parts with each parts typifying the categories of the data.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

How to construct frequency distribution table (FDT) is a tabular arrangement of data by categories
and their corresponding frequencies. There are some terms that must be well understood to suitably
construct distribution table such as “range”, “class interval”, “class size,” class frequency, “class
mark,” ‘relative frequency,” and “cumulative frequency.”

EXAMPLE