ELEC6063 Optoelectronics and

Lightwave Technology

Part 2: LEDs and lasers – 2

Lasers

Wallace CHOY, Room 721, CYC Building

Phone: 3917 8485, chchoy@eee.hku.hk

1
 LASER
Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
LASER
受激辐射的光放大作用

Same frequency
Same polarization
Same direction
Same phase
相同的频率
相同的极化
相同的方向
相同的相位

2
 Einstein’s coefficients 爱因斯坦的系数
向上的速度： 拉布 下降率： Rspon和Rsti
Upward rate: Rabs Downward rate: Rspon and Rsti
dN dN dN
Rabs  1 abs.  B12 N1  ( ) Rspon  2 sp.  A21 N 2 Rstim  2 stim  B21 N 2  ( )
dt dt em. dt em.
At thermodynamic equilibrium, dN 2 dN1

upward rate = downward rate: dt dt
在热力学平衡状态下，上行速率=下行速率：

B12 N1  ( )  A21 N 2  B21 N 2  ( )

8 2 h N2 B12  (v)
 ( )  
(c / n) 3 e hv / k BT  1 N1 A21  B21 (v)

A21 8  h 3
•At thermal equilibrium, Rstim/Rspon<<1
 3
B21 c •Rstim>Rabs for N2>N1
3
 Basic Laser Concepts
激光的基本概念

Rspon ( )   A( E , E ) f ( E )(1  f ( E )) 
Ec
1 2 c 2 v 1 cv dE2


Rstim ( )   B( E , E ) f ( E )(1  f ( E )) 
Ec
1 2 c 2 v 1 cv  ph dE2


Rabs ( )   B( E , E ) f ( E )(1  f ( E )) 
Ec
1 2 v 2 c 1 cv  ph dE2


f c ( E2 )  1  exp(( E2  E fc ) / k BT )  1

f ( E )  1  exp(( E  E ) / k T )
1
v 1 1 fv B
(Fermi-Dirac distribution functions)
(Fermi-Dirac分布函数)

The population inversion condition is satisfied for

在下列情况下，粒子数反转条件得到满足

Efc-Efv>E2-E1>Eg
4
 Basic Laser Concepts
激光的基本概念

Oscillation mode
振荡模式

L  q
2
L
q is integer no.
c c
   q
 2L

c
  vq 1  q 
2L
Δν
FSR, free spectral range
FSR，自由光谱范围
1米长的腔体，Δν=150MHz
1 meter cavity length, Δν = 150MHz
5
 Basic Laser Concepts
激光的基本概念

Oscillation and amplification

振荡和放大

γ(ν)

L
γ(ν) Gain depends on the bandgap energy of material
γ(ν) 增益取决于材料的带隙能量
γ(ν)
Material
dependent
取决于材料
αth
Structure
dependent
取决于结构 ν
ν0
6
 Basic Laser Concepts
激光的基本概念

Laser characteristics
激光特性
Some Common Wavelengths 632.8nm, 514.5nm, 337.1nm
一些常见的波长：632.8nm, 514.5nm, 337.1nm
Beam divergence 0.5mrad 光束发散： 0.5mrad
横向模式： TEM00
Transverse mode TEM00 相干长度：1-100米
操作：CW / 脉冲
输出功率：1mW-20W
Coherence length 1-100meters
Operation cw / pulsed
Output power 1mW-20W
Beam profile
光束轮廓
TEM00 Gaussian
Spot size 1-10mm
高斯型 TEM00
光斑大小 1-10mm

7
 Basic Laser Concepts
激光的基本概念

Coherence
相干长度
length

c  2
Lc  
 
White light covers a wide range : 400-700nm Ar Laser light: 514.5nm
白光覆盖的范围很广？： 400-700纳米 氩激光：514.5纳米

  550nm   514.5nm
  300nm   50 MHz
(550nm) 2
3  10 m / s
8

Lc   1m  2 Lc   6m
300nm 50  10 Hz
6

8
 Fabry-Perot cavity
法布里-佩罗空腔
• Laser behaves like an oscillator. Feedback in a laser is provided by placing the
active medium between pair of mirrors – Fabry-Perot cavity. be obtained by
placing the cavity between a pair of mirrors to form Fabry- Perot resonator.
Light will be amplified as it is reflected back and forth inside the gain medium
激光的行为像一个振荡器。激光器中的反馈是通过将活性介质置于一对镜子之间来提供的--法布里-佩罗空腔。通过
(cavity).将空腔置于一对镜子之间形成法布里-佩罗谐振器来获得。当光在增益介质（腔体）内来回反射时，它将被放大。
• Standing wave forms between the mirrors m/2=L. Mode separation =c/2L.
镜面之间的驻波形式m？/2=L。模式分离？？=c/2L。
• Threshold conditions – gain balances the losses.阈值条件--增益平衡损失。
• Causes of loss: transmission, absorption, and scattering at the mirrors;
absorption and scattering at inhomogeneities in active medium; diffraction losses
at the mirrors. 损失的原因：镜子上的透射、吸收和散射；活动介质中不均匀性的吸收和散射；镜子上的衍射损失。
• If the gain after a round trip path equals to the losses, then there will be sustained
oscillations. This will then be the threshold condition for lasing to occur at which
the gain is named as threshold gain. The losses may include light coupled out of
laser, absorption and scattering at the mirrors, etc. Under steady state condition,
the gain will settle at a constant value. The gain will saturate even the carrier
injection further increases because of the gain saturation effect, i.e. light will not
be amplified indefinitely.
如果一个往返路径后的增益等于损失，那么就会有持续的振荡。这将是激光发生的阈值条件，在此条件下的增益
被命名为阈值增益。损失可能包括从激光器中耦合出来的光，在镜子上的吸收和散射，等等。在稳态条件下，增
益将稳定在一个恒定值。由于增益饱和效应，即使载波注入量进一步增加，增益也会饱和，也就是说，光不会被
无限放大。
9
 Fabri-Perot cavity
法布里-佩罗腔

Δν

10
 Laser threshold 激光阈值

Current injection
Feedback After a round trip of transit, the intensity of
radiation through the medium can be expressed
Amplification as: 经过一个来回的转运，通过介质
的辐射强度可以表示为：

(1) P(2l)=P(0)R1R2exp[2(-)l]

where  is gain and  is absorption loss. The

threshold condition is equivalent to the
intensity after round trip transit which should
be the same as the initial intensity, i.e.:
其中γ是增益，α是吸收损失。阈值条件相当于往返转运后
的强度应与初始强度相同，即：
(2) P(2l)=P(0)

• R1, R2 reflectivities of mirrors From Eqn (1), we obtain

• Laser frequency  must match one of R1R2exp[2(-)l]=1
the cavity modes m. Or the threshold gain is given as
• Spacing of the modes is constant if 或者说阈值增益给定为
frequency dependence of n is ignored. 1 1
(3)  th    ln( )
• FP semiconductor laser usually emits 2l R1 R2
in several longitudinal modes.
镜子的R1、R2反射率
- 激光频率？，必须与腔体模式之一相
匹配？m。
- 如果忽略n的频率相关性，模式的间 11
距是恒定的。
- FP半导体激光器通常以几种纵向模
式发射。
激光器类型
- 气体激光器
- 液体染料激光器（这里不讨论）
- 固态（掺杂绝缘体）激光器
Laser types
- 参数激光器（此处不作讨论）
- 自由电子激光器（此处不作讨论）
- 半导体激光器

• Gas lasers
• Liquid dye laser (not discussed here)
• Solid state (Doped insulator) lasers
• Parametric lasers (not discussed here)
• The free electron laser (not discussed here)
• Semiconductor lasers

For laser photos and useful practical information on

lasers see Samuel M. Goldwasser webpage Sam’s
关于激光器的照片和有用的实用信息，请参见Samuel M.
laser FAQ. Goldwasser网页上Sam的激光器常见问题。
12
 Gas lasers
• Gas lasers are most widely used type of lasers, from low power
HeNe laser to high power CO2 lasers for industrial applications.
• There are three different classes of gas lasers:
– Atomic lasers (HeNe)
– Ion lasers (Ar, HeCd)
– Molecular lasers (CO2)
• Since the levels are well defined and broad bands are absent,
optical pumping is not suitable. Most commonly used pumping
method – electron collisions in gas discharge.
气体激光器
- 气体激光器是使用最广泛的激光器类型，从低功率的氦氖激光器到工业应用的高功率CO2激光器。
- 有三种不同类别的气体激光器：
- 原子激光器（HeNe）
- 离子激光器（Ar, HeCd)
- 分子激光器（CO2）
- 由于水平是明确的，没有宽频带，所以不适合使用光学泵浦。最常用的泵浦方法 - 气体放电中的电子碰撞。

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- 原子激光器 - 约10份氦和1份氖的混合物。发光来自于Ne原子能级之间的转换，而He的作用是提供激发。放电管中的压
力通常为~10Torr，施加的电压为~2-4keV。
- 离子气体激光器 - 气体原子在高电流（15-50A）放电中通过碰撞被电离。离子被进一步的电子碰撞所激发。
- 分子激光器 - 在分子的振动和旋转水平之间进行转换。因此，？ 是非常长的。例如，？ 的二氧化碳是10.6um。
• Atomic Laser – mixture of about 10 parts He and one part Ne.
Lasing is from transitions between energy levels of Ne atoms,
while He has a role in providing excitation. Pressure in discharge
tube is typically ~10Torr, and voltage applied is ~2-4keV.
• Ion gas laser - Gas atoms are ionized by collisions in high (15-50A)
current discharge. The ions are excited by further electron
collisions.
• Molecular Laser - Transitions between vibrational and rotational
levels in a molecule. Therefore  is very long.
e.g.  of CO2 is 10.6um.

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 Solid state lasers
• Doped insulator or solid state lasers – active medium
consists of crystalline or amorphous host material
containing active ions (typically transition metals or
rare earths).
• Examples: Nd:YAG, Ruby, alexandrite, 固态激光器 - 掺杂绝缘体或固态激光器--活性介质
由含有活性离子（通常是过渡金属或稀
titanium:sapphire. 土）的晶体或非晶体主材料组成。
- 例子： Nd:YAG, Ruby, alexandrite
, titanium:sapphire

15
 Semiconductor lasers
The laser cavity is made from semiconductor. The cavity forms
optical waveguide. Power – typically low, 5-20 mW.
半导体激光器
激光器的腔体由半导体制成。腔体形成光波导。功率 - 通常较
低，5-20 mW。

Current flow

Fiber

+- -+ Light in core

Reflective Some fiber end shaped

facet to lens curvature to
improve light coupling
16

一些光纤端部的形状与透镜曲率一致
，以改善光耦合。
量子井
- 当半导体的尺寸与载流子的平均自由路径相当
时，量子大小的效应主导着材料的电子特性。
- 量子井由夹在两个大带隙层之间的小带隙半导
体组成。如果小带隙材料足够薄，载流子在垂直
于异质面的方向上的运动是量化的。
- 如果势垒也很薄，在量子阱中形成的离散级就
会分裂成小带--超晶格结构
P. Bhattacharya, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices, Prentice Hall, 1994.
Quantum wells
• When the dimensions of the semiconductor
become comparable to the mean free path
of the carriers, quantum sized effects
dominate the electronic properties of the
material.
• Quantum well consists of a small band gap
semiconductor sandwiched between two
large bandgap layers. If the small band gap
material is thin enough, the motion of the
carriers in the direction perpendicular to
heterointerfaces is quantized.
• If the barrier is very thin as well, discrete
levels formed in quantum wells split into
minibands – superlattice structure.
17
 (a) 二维状态密度，破折线：传统的块状半导体材料，实线：量子井
(b) 电子分布，虚线：块状半导体材料，实线：量子井。
(c) 量子井中的增益光谱。虚线表示考虑到量子井尺寸的等效三维参数。

(a) Two-dimensional density of states, dash

line: conventional bulk semiconductor
materials, solid line: quantum wells
energy

(b) electron distribution, dash line: bulk

semiconductor materials, solid line:
quantum wells.
energy

(c) gain spectrum in a quantum well. The

dashed curves show the equivalent three-
dimensional parameters taking the
energy quantum well size into account.

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量子阱激光器
通过使用量子阱结构，由于子带能量的状态密度突然增加，电子被分散在一个较小的能量范围内，在子带边缘的密度相对较高。这种情况意味着在
量子阱激光器中以比传统二极管激光器更低的注入载流子密度实现了人口反转。因此，增益光谱将缩小，增益值将增加。量子阱激光器的阈值电流
将很低。
QUANTUM WELL LASERS
在低维量子约束系统中，如量子线（1-D）和量子盒（0-D），带状电子和空穴的状态密度达到峰值，联合状态密度（和增益）预计将更高。(本课
程中不详细介绍

By using quantum well structure, due to the abrupt increase of

the density of states at the subband energy, the electrons are spread
over a smaller energy range with a relatively high density at the
subband edge. This situation implies that population inversion is
achieved with a lower injected carrier density in a quantum well
laser than in a conventional diode laser. As a consequence, the gain
spectrum will narrow down and gain value will increase. The
threshold current will be low in quantum well lasers.
In lower-dimensional quantum-confined systems, such as
quantum wires (1-D) and quantum boxes (0-D) the density of states
of electrons and holes at the bandedges are peaked and the joint
density of states (and gain) are expected to be even higher. (not in
detail in this course.

19
Band diagrams of the active
region of (a) single quantum
well and
(a)单量子阱和(b)多量子阱分离资助异质结构
(SCH)和分级折射率-SCH(GRIN-SCH)激光器的有
源区带图。
(b)多量子阱分离-压抑异质结构(SCH)和分级折
射率-SCH(GRIN-SCH)激光器的有源区带图。
(b) multi-quantum well
separate-confinement
heterostructure (SCH) and
graded refractive index-SCH
(GRIN-SCH) lasers.

20
 Semiconductor Lasers

Two typical types of semiconductor lasers

1. Edge emitting semiconductor lasers

2. Surface emitting semiconductor lasers

commonly named as vertical cavity surface
emitting lasers (VCSELs).
半导体激光器
两种典型的半导体激光器
1. 边缘发射的半导体激光器
2. 表面发射的半导体激光器
通常被称为垂直腔表面发射激光器（VCSELs）。

21
 Edge emitting lasers-1

• Light confined in narrow stripe in junction layer -- ~5 µm

wide
– Gain along length of chip, 300-500 µm
• Edge facets define Fabry-Perot cavity
– Surface reflection high because of high refractive index (3.5 for GaAs)
• Front facet: light output for data transmission.
• Rear facet typically coated
– Some light may be coupled out for monitoring
边缘发射激光器-1
- 光线被限制在结点层的窄条中--~5微米宽
- 沿着芯片长度的增益，300-500 µm
- 边缘面定义了法布里-珀罗空腔
- 由于高折射率（GaAs为3.5），表面反射率高
- 正面：用于数据传输的光输出。
- 后面的刻面通常有涂层
- 一些光可以被耦合出来用于监测

22
 Edge emitting lasers -2

• Active layers very

Current flow
thin
• Light emitting Laser action in
area ~ 0.5 µm x 5 Narrow stripe
µm
• Diffraction causes
Little light output
rapid beam spread for monitoring + - -+ Light out
• Fiber butt coupled the laser

to light-emitting
spot
-
-
有源层非常薄
发光区域 ~ 0.5 µm x 5 µm
Reflective
-
-
衍射导致光束迅速扩散
光纤对接耦合到发光点
facet
23
 VCSEL
• Vertical Cavity Laser output
Surface Emitting
Laser metal contact
• Mirrors above and
n-type substrate
below junction (transparent)
• Top partly

Resonant cavity
reflective Output mirror
(partly transparent)
• Bottom totally
spacers
reflecting Junction layer
-
-
垂直腔表面发射激光器
结点上方和下方的镜子
p-type layers
- 顶部部分反射
- 底部完全反射
blocking layer

metal contact
24
 Advantages of VCSEL
• Emit from surface
– Does not require cleaving, simpler packaging
• Low threshold current small volume

• Larger circular emitting area 5-30 µm
– Size controllable by design of device
• Lower beam divergence, better quality beam
 multi-modes
• Directly modulatable at higher speeds
– Less modulated area, so less chirp
VCSEL的优点
- 从表面发射
- 不需要开裂，包装更简单
- 低阈值电流，体积小
- 更大的圆形发射区域 5-30 µm
- 尺寸可通过器件的设计来控制
- 更低的光束发散，更好的质量的光束多模式
- 可在较高速度下直接调制
- 调制面积较小，所以啁啾声较小
25
 VCSEL limitations
• Limited output power (low gain/pass)
• Requirement for depositing many thin
layers to make mirrors
– GaAlAs can be deposited with different refractive indexes
for mirrors
– Multilayer mirrors hard to make in InGaAsP/InP
• Long-wavelength technology is emerging
– e.g. InGaAsN on GaAs
VCSEL的局限性
- 输出功率有限（低增益/高通量）
- 需要沉积许多薄层来制作反射镜
- 砷化镓可以用不同的折射率沉积来做反射镜
- 在InGaAsP/InP中很难制造多层镜面
- 长波长的技术正在出现
- 例如，砷化镓上的InGaAsN

26
 Spectral bandwidth (linewidth)

• Range of wavelengths from source

• Narrow linewidth desirable for
– High-speed transmission to limit chromatic dispersion
– WDM to pack more optical channels in available space
光谱带宽（线宽）
- 来自源头的波长范围
- 狭窄的线宽适合于
- 高速传输以限制色散现象
- 波分复用，在可用空间内容纳更多的光通道

27
 Laser Bandwidth

• Fabry-Perot edge emitters

– Resonance depends on cavity length
– 300-500 µm cavity corresponds to support 1000 wavelengths in
n=3.5 material
– Spacing of lasing wavelength: 1-3nm
• Multiple resonant wavelengths fall within gain
curve (longitudinal modes)
– Spacing of 0.6 nm at 1300 nm
– Each resonance is narrow (but not necessarily stable at that
wavelength)
激光带宽
- 法布里-珀罗特边缘发射器
- 共振取决于腔体长度
- 300-500微米的腔体对应于在n=3.5的材料中支持1000个波长
- 发光波长的间距：1-3纳米
- 多个谐振波长落在增益曲线内（纵向模式）
- 1300纳米处的间距为0.6纳米
- 每个谐振都很窄（但不一定在该波长上很稳定）

28
 Fabry-Perot Laser Bandwidth
法布里-珀罗特激光器的带宽

This is instantaneous snapshot 在1300纳米的激光器中，线条通常相

Power on each line varies 隔约0.6纳米。

这是瞬时快照
每条线路的功率都不同

发射谱

波长

29
 Single-Frequency Diode Lasers: for high speed and long
haul application 单频二极管激光器：用于高速和长距离的应用
- 在一个纵向模式上进行振荡
- 速度超过1-2.5Gbit/s时需要用到
• Oscillate on one longitudinal mode - 需要温度稳定
- 波长是温度的函数

• Needed for speeds above 1-2.5 Gbit/s

• Temperature stabilization needed
– Wavelength is function of temperature
典型的单模激光器
Typical single mode laser - 分布式反馈激光器(DFB)
- 分布式布拉格反射激光器(DBR)
- 外部腔体激光器
• Distributed feedback laser (DFB) - 可调谐激光器

• Distributed Bragg reflection laser (DBR)

• External cavity laser
• Tunable lasers

30
 Distributed Feedback Laser
分布式反馈激光器

• Light scatters from

grating in laser
substrate above or
below the active 光栅将发射限制在一个频率。

region
D
• Limits oscillation to
one wavelength
because D is very
short.
- 光线从活性区域上方或下方的激光基片上的
光栅上散射出去
- 由于D非常短，所以将振荡限制在一个波长
内。

31
 Distributed Bragg reflection
分布式布拉格反射

• Grating etched in 在非泵浦区的半导体覆盖光栅层

substrate Semiconductor covers 驱动电流只通过这个区域
grating layer
• In plane of active in unpumped region
layer, but outside
laser zone
• Feedback limits
活性层
oscillation to one
wavelength
- 蚀刻在基片上的光栅
- 在活性层的平面上，但在激光区之外
- 反馈将震荡限制在一个波长内 分布式布拉格反射激光器
Light scattered
from here
into active layer
光线从这里散射到活性层

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 External cavity laser-1
外腔激光器-1
- 法布里-珀罗激光器
- 单面抗反射涂层
- 包括在腔体中转动的色散元件（将波长分离到不同的物理路径上）。

• Fabry-Perot laser - 转动它可以调整谐振波长

- 将振荡限制在狭窄的范围内
- 与可调谐实验室激光器的原理相同

• One facet anti-reflection coated

• Dispersive element turned included in
cavity (separate wavelengths to different
physical paths)
• Turning it tunes resonant wavelength
• Limits oscillation to narrow range
• Same principle as tunable lab lasers

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 External cavity laser-2
外腔式激光器-2

反射式光栅 有面孔涂层以防止反射 二极管激光器（尺寸夸张）

选择波长
输出光线

其他波长 输出面

激光腔的长度

c. 外腔可调谐激光器

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可调谐的二极管激光器
- 可调谐分布式布拉格反射
- 几种变化
- 微镜腔VCSEL
- 外部腔体
- 边缘发射器
- VCSEL
- 含有可选择激光条纹的阵列
Tunable diode lasers

• Tunable distributed bragg reflection

– Several variations
• Micromirror cavity VCSEL
• External cavity
– edge-emitter
– VCSEL
• Array containing selectable laser stripes

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可调谐的布拉格激光器
- 布拉格光栅可选择激光波长
- 采样的光栅有一系列的峰值
- 光栅可以在两端
- 温度或电流改变布拉格光栅间距
- 材料的热膨胀
- 折射率的热变化
- 这些因素结合起来改变波长
Tunable bragg laser

• Bragg grating selects laser wavelength

– Sampled grating has series of peaks
– Gratings can be on both ends
• Temperature or current changes Bragg grating
spacing
– Thermal expansion of material
– Thermal change of refractive index
• These combine to change wavelength

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Vernier tuning of grating peaks
光栅峰值的游标调谐

Reflection where resonances coincide

共鸣重合处的反射

Causes large output wavelengths shift

导致大的输出波长偏移
Small shift
in this peak
这一峰值的小幅移动

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 Micromirror cavity VCSEL
微镜腔VCSEL

Output beam 外部部分透明的微镜垂直移动，改变腔体长度，从

而调谐波长
输出光束 External partly transparent
micromirror moves vertically,
changing cavity length and thus
tuning wavelength

Mirror support
镜像支持

Short resonant cavity

短谐振腔 Active layer
活性层

Rear
reflector
后部反射器

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可选择的激光条纹
- 每个激光器发出不同的波长
- 通过选择一个激光器进行调谐
- 可以进行补充调谐
- 输出被放大以克服混合损失
Selectable laser stripes
• Each laser emits different wavelengths
• Tuning is by picking one laser
– Supplemental tuning possible
• Output is amplified to overcome mixing loss
波导 混合耦合器

激光器 Waveguide Mixing coupler

输出光纤

Laser Output fiber

半导体放大器

Semiconductor
Amplifier
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