Visvesvaraya Technological University: S J C Institute of Technolog

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELAGAVI – 590018
INTERNSHIP REPORT
on
“FOUNDRY AND FORGE DIVISION”
COMMUNICATION, NAVIGATION AND IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Submitted By
LEKHASHREE S 1SJ19EC083
Internship carried out at:
HAL Bengaluru.
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
INTERNAL GUIDE: EXTERNAL GUIDE:

Prasanna Kumar D C K S Yognath Murthy
Assistant Professor Chief manager
Department of ECE Foundry and forge division
SJCIT HAL,Bangalore
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

S J C INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOG
CHICKBALLAPUR – 562101
2022-2023
S J C INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
VTU Affiliated, AICTE Approved, Accredited by NAAC & NBA (CSE, ECE, ME), Gold rated by QS I – Quage
CHIKAKBALLAPUR - 562101, KARNATAKA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AMD COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Internship Work entitled “FOUNDRY AND FORGE” is a bonafide work
carried out by LEKHASHREE S (1SJ19EC083) is a student of S J C Institute of Technology,
Chikkaballapur in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics and
Communication Engineering in Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the
academic year 2022-2023. It is certified that they have completed the Internship satisfactorily.
Signature of Guide Signature of Coordinator Signature of HOD
Prof. Prasanna Kumar D C Prof. Bhavana S DR. B. N. Shobha

Assistant professor Assistant professor HOD
Dept. of ECE Dept. of ECE Dept. of ECE
SJCIT SJCIT SJCIT
EXTERNAL VIVA
Name of the Examiners: Signature of the Examiners:

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
With great pride I would like to express my gratitude to S J C Institute of Technology. The
temple of learning for providing us the required platform for the fulfillment of the internship.
Remembering with reverence, I offer my pranamas at the lotus feet of Byravaikya
Padmabhushana Paramapoojya Jagadguru Sri Sri Sri Dr. Balagangadharanatha Mahaswamiji.
Submitting devout pranamas and seeking the blessings of his holiness Paramapoojya
Jagadguru Sri Sri Sri Dr. Nirmalanandanatha Mahaswamiji and Poojya Sri Sri Mangalanatha
Swamiji.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. G T Raju, Principal of SJCIT, Chikkaballapur for
providing us with excellent infrastructure to complete the internship.
I express wholehearted gratitude to Dr. B N SHOBHA who is the respectable HOD,

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering. We wish to acknowledge the
support for making ourtask easy by providing us with all valuable help and encouragement.
I thank my Internship Coordinator Assistant professor. Bhavana S for her guidance,

encouragement and valuable suggestion.
It is myprivilege to thank my Guide Assistant professor. Prasanna Kumar D C for his guidance,
encouragement, support and valuable suggestion for completion of my internship.
And last but not the least, I would be very pleased to express my heartfelt thanks to FOUNDRY &
FORGE DIVISION, HAL Bengaluru for their guidance and support provided to complete the
internship.
I also thank all those who extended their support and co-operation while bringing out this
internship.
Finally, I would like to thank our family members and friends for their kind co-operation
and motivation to proceed in my Internship work.
LEKHASHREE S (1S19EC083)
I
ABSTRACT
Internships enables engineering college students to accumulate in-call for technical skills,
enables to analyze expert ethics or etiquette and enables in sharpening the tender skills. Students
get a possibility to show themselves to the real painting’s environment, contrasting with their
textbook theories. Having the talent to use theories in sensible paintings could be very essential
and internship offers you the proper platform for trying out your efficiency.
We visited extraordinary departments wherein they gave us quick concept approximately

their paintings and tasks they're running on which includes those which they have got completed.
We received a few information approximately UAV’s, designing carried on CATIA,

SIMULINK paintings carried for months, extraordinary shops, assembling the aircraft. Each
branch we may want to analyze something new which stimulated us greater into our field.
II
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Title Page No.
Figure 1.1 Shri Walchand Hirachand 8

Figure 1.2 HAWK 10
Figure 1.3 LCA 10
Figure 1.4 IJT 10
Figure 1.5 HTT 40 10
Figure 1.6 DHRUV 11
Figure 1.7 RUDRA 11
Figure 2.1 Brake pads of aircraft 12
Figure 2.2 Powder compacting hydraulic press 13
Figure 2.3 Drum used for blending purpose 13
Figure 2.4 Furnace used for sintering 13
Figure 2.5 Grain boundary fusing 14
Figure 2.6 Dynamometer 15
Figure 2.7 Diagrammatic representation 16
Figure 3.1 Aluminium poured into mould 17
Figure 4.1 Turbine blade manufacture 18
Figure 4.2 Robotic arm during coating 18
Figure 4.3 SI phase diagram 19
Figure 4.4 Preheating before metal pouring 19
Figure 5.1 Digital audio control system 20
Figure 5.2 Advanced communication system 22
Figure 5.3 Soft net radio 23
Figure 5.4 Secure communication datalink 24
Figure 5.5 Voice activated command system 25
Figure 5.6 Multimode navigation system 26
Figure 5.7 ANS series marker receiver 27
Figure 5.8 Advanced TACAN 28
Figure 5.9 Advanced radio altimeter 29
Figure 5.10 FOE transponder 30
III
Figure 5.11 FOE interrogator 31
Figure 5.12 Combined interrogator & transponder 32
Figure 7.1 Development department activites 35
Figure 10.1 Stress corrosion cracking testing machine 40
LIST OF TABLES
Page no.
Table 1.1 HAL corporate 9
IV
CONTENTS
Page no.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT I
ABSTRACT II
LIST OF FIGURES III-IV

LIST OF TABLE IV
Chapter No. Chapter Name
CHAPTER 1 COMPANY PROFILE 8-11

CHAPTER 2 POWDER METALLUURGY 12-16
CHAPTER 3 NON FERROUS FOUNDRY 17
CHAPTER 4 PRECISION FOUNDRY 18-19
CHAPTER 5 COMMUNICATION, NAVIGATION & 20-32
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS.
CHAPTER 6 POWER GENERATION 33-34
CHAPTER 7 DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT 35-36
CHAPTER 8 STORES 37
CHAPTER 9 QUALITY CONTROL DEVELOPMENT 38
CHAPTER 10 CENTRAL MATERIAL PROCESSING
LABORATORY 39-40
CHAPTER 11 CHEMICAL SECTION 41
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
CHAPTER 12 42-44
CONCLUSION 45
REFERENCE 46-47
FOUNDRY & FORGE DIVISION (HAL)
CHAPTER - 1
COMPANY PROFILE
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO HAL
Figure 1.1: Shri Walchand Hirachand[10]
The Company which had its origin as Hindustan Aircraft Limited was incorporated on 23
Dec 1940 at Bangalore by Shri Walchand Hirachand, a farsighted visionary, in association with
the then Government of Mysore, with the aim of manufacturing aircraft in India. In January 1951,
Hindustan Aircraft Limited was placed under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence,
Government of India. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) came into existence on 1 st October
1964. The Company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with Aeronautics
India Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Dept, Kanpur. The Company had built aircraft and
engines of foreign design under license, such as Prentice, Vampire & Gnat. It also undertook the
design and development of aircraft indigenously. In August 1951, the HT-2 Trainer aircraft,
designed and produced by the company under the able leadership of Dr. V.M.Ghatge flew for the
first time. Over 150 Trainers were manufactured and supplied to the Indian Air Force and other
customers. With the gradual building up of its design capability, the company successfully
designed and developed four other aircraft i.e. two seater 'Pushpak' suitable for flying clubs,
'Krishak' for Air Observatory Post (AOP) role, HF-24 Jet Fighter '(Marut)' and the HJT-16 Basic
Jet Trainer '(Kiran)'.Meanwhile, in August 1963, Aeronautics India Limited (AIL) was
incorporated as a Company wholly owned by the Government of India, to undertake manufacture
of MiG-21 aircraft under license. Factories were setup at Nasik (Maharashtra) & Koraput
(Odisha).In June 1964, the Aircraft Manufacturing Depot which was set up in 1960 at Kanpur as
an Air Force unit to produce the Airframe for the HS-748 transport aircraft was transferred to AIL.
Soon thereafter, the Government decided to amalgamate Hindustan Aircraft.
Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 8 2022-23

Limited with AIL so as to conserve resources in the field of aviation where the technical talent in
the country was limited and to enable the activities of all the aircraft manufacturing units to be
planned and coordinated in a most efficient and economical manner.
Table 1.1: HAL Corporate

HAL has been successful in numerous R&D programs developed for both defense and civil
aviation sector. HAL has made substantial progress in its current projects:
 Advanced light helicopter –weapon system integration(ALH-WSI)
 TEJAS - light Combat Aircraft (LCA)
 Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT)
 Light combat Helicopter (LCH)
 Various military and civil upgrades.
Dhruv was delivered to the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force and the Coast Guard in March 2002
in the very first year of its production, a unique achievement.
HAL has played a significant role for India’s space programs by participating in the manufacture
of Structures for satellite launch vehicles like
 PSLV (polar satellite launch vehicle)
 GSLV (Geo-synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle)

 IRS (Indian Remote Satellite)

 INSAT (Indian National Satellite)
HAL has won several international & national awards for achievements in R&D technology,
managerial performance, exports, energy conservation, quality and fulfillment of social
responsibilities.
1.2 HAL PRODUCTS
Figure 1.2: HAWK[11] Figure 1.3: LCA[12]
Figure 1.4: IJI[13] Figure 1.5: HTT 40[13]

Figure 1.6: DHRUV[14]
Figure 1.7: RUDRA[15]

CHAPTER – 2
POWDER METALLURGY
Powder metallurgy is also used to make unique materials impossible to get from melting or
forming in other ways. Powder metallurgy is a metal-forming process performed by heating
compacted metal powders to just below their melting points. It consists of two units in HAL
ferrous & non- ferrous.
2.1 FERROUS METALLURGY

HAL powder metallurgy department consists of ferrous & non-ferrous department in which
ferrous department is the most active. Powder metallurgy is generally used in mass production
& is performed by mixing, die compaction & sintering of powdered particles through
application of temperature & pressure.
Figure 2.1: Brake Pads of aircraft[16]
● Fe based powder are used for jet engines
● Cu based powders are used for commercial planes
● Organic based powders are used for Turbopropeller (less energy dissipated)
Requirement for the brake pads production:
➢ Preparation of fine powders
In HAL work is done on Aircraft brake pads so we use metals like Fe, Al etc.
➢ Mixing & blending perfect ratio of binders (resign based on ferrous

powder metallurgy) & powders.
 Why is mixing & blending important?
To impart uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles. Which further provides a good
base for uniform diffusion during further processes.

➢ Compacting/pressure sintering (pressure range- 30-240 kg/cm2)

In this process vertical pressure is applied from 400-700 MP a which results in the
desired shape of the brake pads.
Figure 2.2: Powder compacting hydraulic press[17] Figure 2.3: Drum used for blending[18]
➢ Sintering
This is the most important process which is done to produce a permanent bond between
the metal particles, the green compact is sintered or heated at high temperature .This is
done in H2 atmosphere
Figure 2.4: Furnace used for sintering[19]

Why is it done in an H2 controlled environment?
• Industrial gases such as Hydrogen for furnace atmospheres are characterized by their high
purity (>99.9995%). This purity is typically adequate for many processes involving a wide
array of material.
• If we use O2 controlled environment it may result reacting the surface of the green
compact in furnace which may result in material loss i.e; fe2o3, feO & CuO etc.
What really happens in sintering which makes the green compact harder?
Figure 2.5: From the figure you can see the grain boundary fusing together in which
bindersmelt and bind the grains together increasing its strength & desired hardness.
This is done in the furnace in batches & soaking time is 3hrs at 1000℃ for brake pads
[20]
Advantages:
● Mass production of items can be done i.e. brake pads for aircrafts whose
lifeis 250 landings.
● Products made by powder metallurgy don't require further processing.
● Minimum or nearly no wastage of raw materials
● Wide combinations of metals-metals & ceramics etc are possible through

this process.
Disadvantages
● Only symmetrical shapes are possible, complex shapes are not possible.
● Small size i.e; upto 20 kg products are made.
● Mechanical properties are poor compared to cast or machined parts.

Verification after production- In one batch 100 brake pads are produced & one of them is
tested.
1. Hardness Testing - This is used to test the required hardness for brake pads. Desired
hardness cannot occur due to error like errors in temperature sensor,
error in H2 controlled environment.
2. Optical Microscopy - This is basic microscopy testing the overall
microstructure at an easiness level.
3. Ultrasonic bond quality testing - In this the bond are tested byultrasonic testing
4. SEM & EDS
5. Dynamometer Testing - this testing is done as in break pads coefficient of friction is

required between 0.5- 0.15
Figure 2.6: Dynamometer[21]

Figure 2.7: Diagrammatic Representation[21]

CHAPTER – 3
NON FERROUS FOUNDRY
Non-ferrous metal foundries are foundries that deal with non-ferrous metals ( metals
that do not contain Iron or Steel). They melt and pour molten metals into mould to create a
specific desired geometry. After the liquid has cooled, it is removed from the mould. The
result is a non–ferrous metal casting. In HAL, Aluminium Foundry is carried out by sand
casting technique. Al-Si and Al-Cu alloys are produced by casting. Aluminium castings are
used to make complex and detailed parts very easily.
Mould Section
Sand Moulds are produced in an automated way in a foundry.
● The Filtered beach sand is mixed with binder and catalyst and is fed in a Wesman
Binding Machine(8 or 25 ton capacity).
● Mixed sand is loaded and compacted into a mould box containing a patternfor casting.
Now the other half of the mould box is made in the same fashion by rotating the mould
box by 180o.
Melting Section
Here preparation of required alloys takes place. Oil fired and gas fired furnaces are used.
● Aluminium has a tendency to dissolve gases like hydrogen. For removing such gases
Rotary Degasser is used.
● In the case of magnesium, it is highly flammable so it must be used as a molten
metal. Fluxes like Sulphur, chlorides or fluorides are used.
● After melting tests like optical emission spectroscopy is performed to ensure the
presence of required components in desired quantity in alloy.
Figure 3.1: Aluminium Poured into mould[22]

CHAPTER – 4
PRECISION FOUNDRY
This is done by automated investment casting in which primary layers are coated
manually (high viscosity depends on the size of the cup) & rest of them are fully- automated
by robotic arm. HAL can produce very precise structures like engine blades, precise gas
turbine engine injector.
In this shop nearly 30 Alloys are used producing 300 varieties of components. major
buyers are GE, Hamiloton, Meggitt, DRDO etc.
Casted elements of alloys- Al, Ni, Al-Si, Al-Mg, Al-Cu-Mg, A356 (6.5-7.5% - Si,0.25 -
0.45% - Mg), A57G06 (Mg - 0.45 - 0.7%).
Figure 4.1: Turbine blade manufactured by it[23] Figure 4.2: Robotic arm doing coating[24]
When nail polish is applied as paint coating it provides small thickness between two
coatings and evaporates to further provide extra thickness for expansion at high
temperature preventing cracking.
Testing
1. Radioactivity
2. Mechanical testing
3. Magnetic particle
4. Crack testing
Coatings Steels, Ni - 6 coats Al - 5 coats
1. Primary slurry - Thermally stabilized Zr material -Smooth surface - high temperature

material.
2. Backup Coat – Fused silica colloidal solution.
3. Coating of sand & repeating them further coating speed depends on temp as well.

Figure 4.3: Si phase diagram[25]
As we can see molten alloy is at 650- 1000 ℃ when it is poured in silica phase change
occurs from alpha-beta or liquid and crack occurs automatically in moulds which make it easy
to remove i.e. we don't need hammering and removing the mould.
Figure 4.4: Preheating before metal pouring[26]
Some wax which is trapped even after melting the wax. These moulds are thus left out
to cool and the trapped wax becomes to condense at the interior and exterior of the mould
surface which we need to remove by heating it once before being ready.
All alloys have the tendency to react with the atmosphere which results in H2 defects to
avoid it. 20 years ago hydroxychloro ethane environment was used but due to environmental
concerns and health concerns due to fumes production it was dropped. HAL guys then shifted
to Argon gas but due to its very cost it was dropped and was replaced by N2 gas.

CHAPTER – 5
Communication, Navigation & Identification systems

5.1 DIGITAL AUDIO CONTROL SYSTEM (DACS 2300A SERIES)
In modern aircraft, the Pilot is engrossed in a wide range of communication signals viz.,
Transceiver audios, Receiver audios, Warning audios and Intercommunication audios. Digital
Audio Control System (DACS) eases the Pilot’s burden by efficiently minimizing the controls,
interfacing all the signals in a logical manner and provides the following functions:
Intercommunication between Flight Crew and Ground Crew. Interface and control of mike and
headset audio signals of various transceivers, Interface of warning signals. ,Interface to the Cockpit
Voice Recorder and Voice Data Recorder. Digital Audio Control System (DACS) implements
audio signal conditioning in digital domain using digital signal processing techniques and provides
better signal quality by using efficient Adaptive Noise Cancellation (ANC) algorithm. The Digital
Audio Control System design is derived from the extensive experience from analog Audio
Management Unit configurations developed for and being used in LCA, IJT, ALH, MiG21 BIS
Upgrade and MiG27 Upgrade aircrafts. Solid-state modular design and rugged construction
provides long life, high reliability and excellent maintainability for both new and retrofit
applications on fixed wing and rotary wing platforms. The DACS is a compact, lightweight and
low cost system.
Figure 5.1 Digital audio control system[37]

KEY FEATURES
• Lightweight, compact & solid-state design
• DSP based Adaptive Noise Cancellation (ANC) & Voice operated switch (VOS)
algorithms.
• Extensive Self-test and Built In Test.
• Automatic change over to standby Power Supply path in case of failure in Normal power
supply path.
• Reliable dual redundant functional channels for safe operation.
• In-situ adjustment of Mike and Audios through USB interface.
• Front panel VOS adjustment
• NVG compatible panel illumination.
DACS 2300A CONFIGURATION
• DACS-Single LRUversion: DACS Qty:1 no for Fighter aircrafts 146mm (W) X 67mm
(H) X 180mm (D) Wt: 1.5 Kg max
• DACS-Split LRUversion : (A) Remote Junction Box (RJB) Qty:1 No Dimensions:

227mm (W) X 113mm (H) X 153mm (D) Wt: 2.2 Kg max (B) Audio Control Panel
(ACP) Qty: 2 no’s to 4 no’s depending up on the platform Dimensions: 146mm (W) X
67mm (H) X 122mm (D) Wt: 0.75 Kg max.

5.2 ADVANCED COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM - ACS 235

For critical flight regimes, HAL’s V/UHF Tactical Airborne Transceivers provides today’s
flight crews with dependable, highly accurate air to air and air to ground communication. ACS- 235,
lightweight airborne V/UHF Tactical Airborne Transceiver is a highly versatile, solid- state, digital,
high frequency radio communication system intended for both fixed- and rotary-wing airborne
applications. Advanced features include digital signal processing (DSP) technology to provide new
embedded features in an exceptionally lightweight, compact system. Control options for the system
provide MIL-STD-1553B. Extensive built-in test equipment (BITE) is utilized for diagnostic testing
and monitoring. Built on a strong foundation of quality, ACS-235 provides users with tactical
advantages and lower life cycle costs. HAL has over 30 years experience in airborne communication
system design and our systems are successfully proven on various aircrafts like SU-30, MIG-29UPG,
MIG-29K/KUB, IJT, MIG- 21UPG (BISON), JAGUAR/DARIN-III, ALH,
MIG27 etc. Combination of our rich experience with latest digital technology makes HAL ACS
235 Radio the affordable choice for users.
KEY FEATURES
• Multi-mode, multi-band, V/UHF Airborne Transceiver

• Direct sequence spread spectrum for LPI
• Good co-location for multiple radio installations
• Emergency guard receiver for 40.5, 121.5, 156.8 and 243 MHZ
• FH for TRANSEC
• Encryption for COMSEC
Figure 5.2-Advanced communication system-ACS 235[38]

5.3 SOFT NET RADIO (SDR-2010)

The SDR-2010 is a Software Defined Radio, designed and developed at SLRDC 2-RFchannel
(V/UHF & L-Band) software configurable Radio. The SDR is capable of hosting different
waveforms ranging from Legacy AM/FM to Frequency Hopping(FH) Voice and Dynamic Time
Division Multiple Access (DyTDMA) Networking. The SDR has necessary interfaces like RS-232,
RS-422, Ethernet and MIL-STD- 1553B for Data and Control. The SDR is a 3/4 ATR LRU with an
External 1/2 ATR L-Band Power Booster. In the Dynamic TDMA based master-less Mobile Adhoc
Networking mode, 40 member participation is possible with facilities like fixed / free message
forwarding and Image broadcasting. Integrated GUIs for various mode selections and waveform
loading are available for ease of operation of the SDR. The features currently available are not
limited and are expandable in terms of Waveforms as well as RF operating bands.
KEY FEATURES
• Digital AM / FM compatible with Legacy AM/FM radios 100 / 500 Hops Frequency
Hopping Voice waveform
• Dynamic TDMA based MANET implementation with 40 nodes participation
• Dynamic Node Leaving and Node Joining mechanisms
• Suitable for Net Centric Operation
• Built in GPSreceiver
• Efficient Time and Frequency Synchronization schemes
• Ethernet based user data interface
• Modular concept with Replaceable RFheads
• Digital Processing Resources available for future growth potential
• Free and Fixed messaging facility
• Built in Test Facility - POST, IBIT
• Pilot selectable modes through MFD
Figure 5.3-Soft net radio(SDR-2010)[39]

5.4 SECURE COMMUNICATION DATALINK (SCDLU)

SCDLU is a Software Defined Radio designed and developed by SLRDC. It is a 2 RF channel
(V/UHF & L Band ) software configurable Radio. SCDLU is capable of hosting different waveforms
ranging from Legacy AM/FM to Frequency Hopping (FH) Voice and Dynamic Time Division
Multiple (DyTDMA) Networking. SCDLU has necessary interfaces like MIL-STD- 1553B,
Ethernet, RS-232, RS-422 for Data and Control. SCDLU is designed in ½ ATR with horizontal
mounting. Power Amplifier for V/UHF and L Band RF channels is built into the Unit. The unit is
cooled by built-in DC fans. Integrated GUIs for various mode selections and waveform loading are
available for ease of operation of SCDLU. The features currently available are not limited and are
expandable in terms of Waveforms as well as RF Operating Bands.
KEY FEATURES
• Digital AM/FM compatible with Legacy AM/FM Radios

• 100/500 Hops frequency hopping waveform
• Dynamic TDMA based MANET with 40 nodes participation
• Dynamic Node Joining and Node Leaving mechanism
• Free/Fixed Text, Image Transfer capability
• Suitable for Net Centric Operation
• Built-in GPS receiver
• Efficient Time and Frequency Synchronization schemes
• Robust Modulation and Forward Error Correction schemes
• Ethernet based user Data Interface
• Modular Concept with Replaceable RF heads
• Digital Processing Resources Available for future growth potential
• Built In Test Facility- POST, CBIT, IBIT
• Pilot selectable modes through MF
Figure 5.4-Secure communication datalink(SCDLU)[39]

5.5 VOICE ACTIVATED COMMAND SYSTEM (VACS-1000A)
Voice Activated Command System (VACS1000A) recognizes the pilot voice commands and
sends the respective code to Onboard computer on MIL STD 1553B bus. VACS reduces the pilot
workload and allows more focus on the critical tasks pertaining to the targets, landing zone, terrain
etc. Intended for tuning of the radios, selection of modes, set up of MFD's, navigational equipment
etc.
KEY FEATURES
• Speaker independent
• Continuous speech recognition
• Operation in high noise and pressure breathing environments
• Use of state of the art speech recognition and enhancement techniques
• Provision for Aural feedback/Command confirmation
• Easy to use Trainer Software to cater for new commands and for further improvement
• INSITUProgramming
• MIL-STD-1553B Interface
• Extensive BIT facility for fault analysis
Figure 5.5-Voice activated command system(VACS-1000A)[40]

5.6 Multimode Navigation System (MNS)

FUNCTIONS:
MNS3005A is an integrated navigation system to support the VOR, ILS, marker and GPS
receiver functional capability.
• VOR receiver for route navigation
• ILS receiver for instrument landing
• Marker receiver for runway approach
• GPS l1 c/a receiver for positional data support in NMEA-0183 format.
KEY FEATURES
• NO.OF CHANNELS : VOR : 160 CHANNELS : LOC/GS: 40 CHANNELS (Pair)

• VOR: Sensitivity:-99dBm Dynamic Range: -93 dBm to -27dBm, Bearing accuracy
• LOC: Sensitivity:-99dBm Dynamic Range: -72 dBm to -33dBm, DDM Accuracy
• GLIDE: Sensitivity:-87dBm Dynamic Range: -76 dBm to -33dBm, DDM Accuracy
• MKR : Sensitivity:-67dBm(High Sense), -53dBm(Low Sense) Audio Output: 10mW to
100mW Adjustable/ 600 ± 20 Ω.
Figure 5.6-Multimode navigation system(MNS)[41]

5.7 ANS SERIES-VOR/ILS/ MARKER RECEIVER

For critical flight regimes, HAL’s ANS series VOR-ILS systems provide today’s flight crew with
dependable, highly accurate bearing and landing information. This real- time system enhances
operational safety during all-weather approaches and Landings. The ANS family of VOR/ILS/MKR
systems are recognized as a value added solution on multiple military platforms. The ANS series
systems quickly gained acceptance as robust VOR-ILS solution and are installed on a multitude of
platforms including SU- 30, MIG-29UPG, MIG-29K/KUB, IJT, LCA (A/F), LCA (NAVY), MIG-
21UPG (BISON), JAGUAR/DARIN-III, HAWK-AdT. The ANS 1100A/ANS1101A/ANS2810A/
ANS2820A is a proven design derived from extensive experience in navigation, precision approach
and landing systems. Solid- state modular design and rugged construction provide long life, high
reliability and excellent maintainability for both new and retrofit applications on fixed-wing aircrafts.
The receiver combines all VOR/ILS/MKR functions in one compact, lightweight, low cost system.
The ANS series meets multiple stringent MIL-STD requirements assuring peak performance under
the harshest Military aircraft environments. With support for both analog and digital interfaces, the
ANS is compatible with a variety of aircraft architectures. The ANS
1100A/ANS1101A/ANS2810A/ANS2820A is available to meet FM broadcast Immunity
requirements as defined in ICAO Annex 10. Combination of our rich experience with latest digital
technology makes HAL VOR/ILS/ Marker Receiver the affordable choice for users.
KEY FEATURES
• Low power, lightweight solid-state design

• Digital Radial/bearing Out
• FM broadcast immunity per ICAO Annex 10
• Marker receiver for runway approach
• VOR receiver for route navigation
• ILS receiver for landing
• DSP technology ,No of channels : VOR : 160 channels LOC/GS: 40 channels
Figure 5.7-ANS series marker receiver[42]

5.8 ADVANCED TACAN (TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION)

ADVANCED TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) is a polar coordinate type radio air navigation
system that provides aircrew with range and bearing (azimuth) information on the ARINC429 /
MIL 1553B Bus for display on the Mission Computer/CDU. Using this information, pilot can fly
directly to particular location or use the bearing and distance from a specific beacon to fix his
geographic location. The range in nautical miles indicates the distance of the aircraft from the
surface beacon. The bearing indicates the direction in degrees with respect to Magnetic North.
TACAN can transmit, receive and process time coded pulse pairs or single pulses. The design is
based on solid-state Transmitter with GaN (Gallium Nitride) based Power Amplifier technology,
Log amp based Super heterodyne receiver for wide dynamic range, High speed 32 bit DSP,
FPGAand ARINC429 / MIL 1553B Bus interface.
KEY FEATURES
• Pilot selectable channel type (252 channels: 126X and 126Y) and frequency through mission
Computer/ Display.
• High-speed 32-bit DSP processor is used for acquisition of distance and bearing, time to go
computation and system operation.
• Time to go computation for velocities from 10-1500 knots.
• GaN based 500W transmitter for better efficiency.
• Pulse generation through digital for better pulse modulation characteristics.
Figure 5.8-Advanced tacan[43]

5.9 ADVANCED RADIO ALTIMETER – RAM 2700A

For critical flight regimes, HAL’s Radio Altimeters provide today’s flight crews with
dependable, highly accurate altitude information above ground-level (AGL) information. This real-
time system enhances operational safety during takeoff, landing, night time operations, and
hazardous flight above rough terrain Designed for applications such as helicopter and combat fighter
operations where accuracy is needed down to zero feet, RAM 2700A is the “State-of-the art” FMCW
Digital Radio altimeter operating in C-Band and measures accurate altitude of the aircraft over the
terrain. RAM 2700A, with its MIL-STD-1553 data bus can be easily coupled with Aircraft display,
mission computer and instrumentation. Proven and precise, this system offers improved situational
awareness for a broad range of fixed and rotary wing aircraft. HAL has over 30 years experience in
Radio Altimeters and our systems are successfully proven on various aircrafts like SU-30, MIG-
29UPG, MIG-29K/KUB, IJT, MIG-21UPG (BISON),
JAGUAR/DARIN-III, ALH, MIG 27 etc. Combination of our rich experience with latest digital
technology makes HAL Advanced Radio Altimeter the affordable choice for users.
KEY FEATURES
• DSP-based C-Band FMCWRadio Altimeter

• Capability to operate in all weather, including heavy rain and snow & terrain like Land,
water, Grass etc
• Digital & analog outputs
• Variable power output as per range for LPI
• Leading edge tracking technique
• Extensive BITE facility for checking the unit serviceability.
• High resolution accuracy
• Doppler effect immune
• Roll & Pitch limit operation
• No forced air cooling is required
Figure 5.9-Advanced radio altimeter[44]

5.10 IDENTIFICATION OF FRIEND OR FOE TRANSPONDER WITH ADS-

B Out IFFT-2460ALH1
The advance IFF products enable war fighters to identify friendly forces and make correct
decisions in time critical situations. The IFF MKXII(S) Transponder-(IFFT)is an airborne
electronic identification equipment to identify friendly aircraft from enemy by assigning unique
identifier code to friendly aircraft transponders. The system supports Mode 1, 2, 3/A, C, IS1 and
Civil Mode S Level 2 features as per STANAG 4193, ICAO Annex-10 Standard and ADS-B Out
feature as per RTCA DO-260B standard. Indian Secure mode (IS1) is provisioned exclusively for
military purposes. In this mode of operation, the interrogation and reply information are encrypted
for transmission & Decrypted for reception of secured military information. HAL has over 40 years
experience in IFF Transponders and our systems have proven performance in various aircrafts like
JAGUAR DARIN-III, DORNIER, ALH MKIII, BOEING P8I, HTT- 40, SU-30,
MIG-29UPG, MIG 29K/KUB, MIG-21UPG (BISON), MIG 27, etc. Our unique combination of
deep experience with a modern digital implementation makes HAL Transponders the only
affordable choice for users.
KEY FEATURES
• Interrogation/Response Identification system for MKXII, Mode S Level 2 as per

STANAG 4193, RTCA DO-181D and ICAO Annex-10 Standard.
• Frequency of Operation 1030 MHz on Receive, 1090 MHZ on Transmit.
• ADS-B out feature as per DO- 260B standard
• TCAS-II Compatible
• Acquisition Squitter Transmission for Aircraft Address Acquisition.
Figure 5.10-FOE transponder[45]

5.11 IDENTIFICATION OF FRIEND OR FOE INTERROGATOR (IFFI-

3400A)
Airborne IFF interrogator (IFFI 3400A) is a state-of-the art MKXIIinterrogator radar with
advance leading edge technology. Airborne IFFI 3400A is equipped with latest high speed digital
processing implemented in FPGAs & multicore processor which can perform accurate identification
of targets in hostile environments. IFFI3400A can be used as a standalone system with independent
E-Scan System or can be coupled to primary radar to share the same antenna platform. The IFFI-
3400A incorporates all advanced features required in today's global military air traffic control
environment, designed and developed for airborne application.
KEY FEATURES
• Interrogation/Response Identification system for MKXII as per STANAG 4193 and ICAO
Annex-10 Standard.
• Frequency of Operation 1090 MHz on Receive, 1030 MHZ on Transmit.
• 1553B bus compatibility for both I/O functions.
• Handles up to 100 targets
• Processing range upto 250Km
• Dual channel Digital Receiver for Monopulse operation.
Figure 5.11-FOE interrogator[45]

5.12 COMBINED INTERROGATOR AND TRANSPONDER (CIT)

Combined Interrogator and Transponder (CIT) - is a IFF MK XII system designed and developed
for Airborne application to identify friend or foe (IFF). These systems are essential in the battlefield
to positively identify enemies and friends. CIT is a state of the art system to cater for both military
and civil aircraft requirements. CIT can Interrogate the designated target and at the same time it can
respond to the interrogations received from other Interrogators to provide its identity. The main
Functional Modes for the Interrogator are Search, Sector search and Challenge. Integration of CIT
in attack, reconnaissance and surveillance aircrafts will improve the tactical situations awareness.
KEY FEATURES
• Total in-house design and development of dual channel high power transmitters with
RF pulse power greater than 1KWatt.
• Dual Channel Receiver for Transponder for Diversity application.
• High-Speed Multi-core Processors, FPGA with high Processing Power for Reply
processing & acquisition of target data.
• Software Compliant to DO254 and DO178
• Compliant to STANAG 4193 & ICAO annexure-10 Standard.
• Compatibility to E-SCAN & M-SCAN antennas.
• TCAS compatibility through ARINC 429 interface.
• Ruggedization, Conduction Cooling, High shock and vibration resistant.
• Option to integrate with existing RADAR or install as independent system with Antenna
Control Unit
Figure 5.12-Combined interrogator and transponder[46]

CHAPTER – 6
POWER GENERATION
 LCA is supported by the following power resources
 Generator 1: Driven by Aircraft Mounted Accessory Gear Box (AMAGB)
 Generator 2: Driven by hydraulic system
 Generator 3: Driven by EGB
 HMDG: used for powering channels 1 and 2 of flight control Battery: It provides DC power
during emergency
AC Generating Systems
Basic AC power in LCA is generated by one 30/40kva main power on AMAGB and Skva
hydraulic driven generator in stable mode.
Ground Control Units are installed individually for every alternator. These are responsible for
monitoring voltage, power and frequency outpour of respective alternators The generators are
connected to the distribution box via generator line contractors which function to either connect or
disc.
DC Generating Systems
DC power is derived through 2 Transform and Rectifier Unit (IRU) of 250A connected in
parallel and a stand by 5KW DC generator with batteries as buffer. Batteries provide power in
emergency or failure.
DC Distribution Systems
 DC distribution system: This bus bar is powered by TRU'S. It has following components.
 Probe Heating Relay
 CMFD
 Voyage Data Recorder (VDR)
 Depressurisation valve
 Booster Pump Relay

 VOR/ILS
 DC Essential bus bar. This is powered by the TRU components connected to it.
 Flight Supported Droplet Combustion (FSDC)
DC Emergency bus bar:
This is powered by the TRU'S under normal condition, 5kw dc generator in case of failure of
TRU'S. The components connected to it, are
 FCS Channel2
 INS CPS
 BHEEMS-EU (1) ECS sensor valves
 Hydraulic system valves
 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) Jet Fuel Starter (JFS)
 Open Architecture Computer (OAC).

CHAPTER – 7
DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT
This department deals to keep a business competitive by providing insights into the market
and developing new services / products or improving existing ones accordingly. They also
analyses equipment, source, supplier etc.
Development focused in HAL
 RPD (rapid prototyping)
Rapid prototyping is the fast fabrication of a physical part, model or assembly using
3D computer aided design (CAD). The creation of the part, model or assembly is
usually completed using additive manufacturing ( 3D printing).
Various types of RPD are -
➢ Selective Laser Sintering
➢ Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
➢ Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
➢ Digital Light Processing (DLP)
➢ Binder Jetting
 Graphene, aerogel, Rocket engines by RPD, Carbon fibers, composites
Figure 7.1: Development department activities[8]

Other software’s used:

Procast - casting simulation
Sumfact - simulates plastic deformation (forging software)
 How does this software’s help us?
1. We can decide product is good or bad before performing the operations

➢ in forging simulation we can check temperature distribution, strain rate distribution,
strain rate, temperature drop, temperature loss
➢ We can avoid shear bands
➢ We can decide load, forging conditions, bear rate.
2. In casting simulation software’s

➢ We can check how effective is heating system is when we pour the metal
➢ This can help avoid shrinkage & metal filling
➢ Liquid shrinkage - pockets, solid shrinkage- blowholes, porosity can be predicted and
avoided.

CHAPTER – 8
STORES
It is a place or industrial set-up to store various raw materials coming into the facility.
Depending upon where it is located, stores have a burden from minor to major
responsibilities.
Functions
 Inventory control and management

 Account for every material received in store by maintaining proper records of
all incoming and outgoing materials.
 Receipt of incoming goods
 Inspection of all receipts
 Storage and preservation
 Identification of material stored
 Issue and dispatch
 Packaging
The stores in HAL carry out its function by managing the amount of material received and
amount supplied to the customer, accounting for the amount of raw materials and waste
materials.

CHAPTER – 9
QUALITY CONTROL DEPARTMENT
Quality is something which is defined by the customer and not by the supplier, in terms
of specifications. Specifications will have various measurable parameters. The Quality
Control department at Foundry & Forge Division operates at 2 levels. At shop level,
engineering control is practiced while quality control is adapted for finished products.
The Quality Control Department at HAL ensures that all the specifications demanded by
customers are met. For this they do:
1. Inspection - Measuring and ensuring the parameters by measuring tool.
2. Calibration of precision measuring instrument.
3. Training of Personnel
4. Audits - conformance to quality system standards like ISO 9000, AS 9100,

IS(Indian Standard). Quality control department conducts audits once every 3
months.
The above mentioned standards are maintained by doing various tests like Non
Destructive Test(NDT), Heat Treatment and carbonating testing.
Some tests carried out are mentioned below:
1. Dye Penetrant Test - It is used for detecting discontinuities which are open to the
surface. Surface discontinuities such as cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts can be
detected using this method.
2. Radiography - X-Ray machines of 160 kV and 250 kV power are used. Image
quality indicator(IQI) is used in the form of small wires of varying thickness to
gauge the resolution of images.
3. Eddy Current Testing - Eddy currents are set up in product with the help of
magnetic field induced by current carrying coil. This sets up defect changes in
magnetic permeability of specimens which is useful in pointing out internal flaws
and defects.
4. Ultrasound Testing - Short ultrasonic pulse waves of 15 to 50 Hz is passed through
the sample. Transducer is used to get the data which is displayed from where the
flaws can be detected.

CHAPTER – 10
CENTRAL MATERIALS PROCESSING LABORATORY
It comprises 9 R&D units of divisional foundry & design. It also consists of nodal
agencies for materials testing & analysis, failure investigation, calibration, process control &
NDT consultancy. It also provides facilities and expertise for materials testing & analysis,
failure investigation, calibration, process control &NDT consultancy.
Quality policy
All personnel concerned with testing & calibration are deeply committed to maintain a high
level quality in testing, analysis & calibration services to clients on par with reputed
national/international interest. They all meet the requirement of ISO/IEC 17025:1999
Quality objectives
The objective is to develop this lab as an independent & impartial organisation of highest
integrity & to improve its service by ensuring:
 Customers satisfaction
 Completing jobs within mutually agreed time period
 Maintaining traceability of all the measurements to
national/international standards.
Testing and Analytical Services

Mechanical testing
1. Routine services offered
 Tensile & compression testing of metallic & non-metallic materials.
 Impact & shear test of metallic materials.
 Low cycle & high cycle fatigue.
 Creep & stress rapture.
 Torsion tests.
 Stress corrosion cracking.
 Fracture toughness behavior of material and alloys.
2. Special Service
 Data generation on tensile , fatigue and creep tests.
 Creep, Fatigue and creep-fatigue interaction behavior.
 Fatigue crack growth rate and fracture toughness studies.

3. Facilities
Stress corrosion cracking testing machine (SCC) alternate and constant immersion
Figure 10.1: Stress corrosion cracking testing machine (SCC)[36]

CHAPTER -11
CHEMICAL SECTION
It comprises organic and non organic sections. In the organic section rubber, plastic & oil
checking are done.
Routine service offered

 Metallic material analysis for chemical composition by conventional wet analysis.
 Analysis of various planting & surface treatment solution for process control.
 Testing of adhesives, oil, fuel, paints, rubber and plastics.
Special services
 Indigenization of aeronautical components by reverse engineering.
 Chemical analysis support in the characterization of metalloceramic & phenolic

composite frictional material ford break pad.
 Development & manufacture of special purpose rubber compounds & components
other elastomers & brake pads.
 Consultancy to various divisions of HAL & other organizations in accidents.
Inorganic section
They follow three listed processes below primarily for every bar in stores:
1. Raw materials from stores are checked. This is done by handheld metal detector in
which uses x ray.
2. At the melting stage we check the chemistry (By taking a mold at least 2×2 inch)
through a spectrometer. It won't be poured until the requirements are met.
3. Finally, once again tests are done.

CHAPTER -12
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
NDT stands for Non-Destructive Testing. It refers to an array of inspection methods that allow
inspectors to evaluate and collect data about a material, system, or component without
permanently altering it.
Services offered
 Radiographic inspection of casting, weldments & composite materials/components.

 Electrical conductivity checked by eddy current method
 Ultrasonic & eddy current inspection method
 Calibration of densitometer & x-ray illuminators
Special services
 Setting up of NDT facilities

 Auditing of NDT facilities
 Preparation of x-ray techniques, NDT manual
 Technical evaluation of NDT equipment’s
 NDT support to defect investigation
 Preparation of course material for NDT training
Facilities
1. Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing is the process of transmitting high-frequency
sound waves into a material in order to identify changes in the material’s properties.
In general, Ultrasonic Testing uses sound waves to detect defects or imperfections on
the surface of a material created.
2. MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI)
Magnetic Particle Non-Destructive Testing is the act of identify imperfections in a
material by examining disruptions in the flow of the magnetic field within the
material.
3. Eddy Current Techniques for Crack Detection
Eddy current testing (ECT) for crack detection is one of the most effective
nondestructive testing (NDT) approaches currently available for surface and near-
surface flaw detection. The best ECT instruments have enough power to measure thin
materials accurately and detect minuscule deviations with ease.

4. Eddy Current Conductivity Meter

Eddy Current Conductivity Meter is a professional device used to precisely measure
the thermal performance, conductivity, and purity of the material.
Calibration Section
1. Routine services offered

➢ Calibration of all types of thermocouples up to 1100 C.
➢ Calibration of temperature indicator controllers and recorders.
➢ Calibration of weighing balance up to 10 kg.
➢ Calibration of torque meter.
➢ Calibration of tensiometer.
➢ Force calibration service from 1000 to 3000 KN.
2. Special Service
➢ On-site calibration of heat treatment furnaces.
➢ Site calibration of universal testing machine from 1000N to 3000N
capacity.
➢ Calibration of hardness testers.
3. Facilities
➢ Tabular thermocouple calibrating furnace 0 to 1200 C.
➢ Tabular thermocouple calibrating furnace 0 to 1000 C.
➢ Biddle USA make versa-cal-calibrator.
➢ Wanl USA makes thermocouple heat prober 1370 MV.
➢ Yokogawa make MV 200 mobile cored/30 channel data logger.
➢ Mikrotech torque wrench tester 0 to 55 kg f-m.
➢ Avery torque testing machine (0 to 1500 Kg-cm).
4. Training
Central Materials Processing Laboratory imparts training for approval of personnel
engaged in :
1. NDT methods - Ultrasonic, Radiography, Penetrant, Magnetic particle, eddy
current testing and visual inspection.
2. Failure Analysis
3. Heat Treatment and macrographic examination, chemical process, aircraft

materials and processes, auditing of NDT installations.

5. Recognitions and Approvals
1. DGAQA (Directorate General of Aeronautical Quality Assurance)
2. DGCA (Directorate General of Civil Aviation)
3. DSIR (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research)

4. NABL (National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration
Laboratories)
5. NADCAP ( National Aerospace and Defence Contractors Accreditation
Program)
6. ROLLS ROYCE(U.K.)
7. SNECMA (France)
6. Customers
1. Indian Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard
2. SNECMA (France)
3. Rolls Royce(U.K)
4. NOOG (U.S.A)
5. Aeronautical Development Agency, Bangalore
6. National Aerospace Laboratory, Bangalore
7. Gas Turbine Research Institute, Bangalore
8. Defence Research and Development Laboratory, Hyderabad
7. Publications
1. Aerospace Metallic Materials Databook (3 volumes)
2. Aerospace Non-Metallic Materials Databook (1 volume)
3. Technology for Au Alloys
4. Special Steels and Technologies

CONCLUTION
At the end of our Internship in HAL, Foundry and Forge division we were able to observe and learn
about different manufacturing processes which are being carried out in the development of aircrafts
parts. The manufacturing processes involved in Ferrous and Non- Ferrous Foundry and the steps
followed to manufacture Communication, navigation and identification system and their key features,
functions of Multimode Navigation System (MNS),ANS Series-VOR/ILS marker receiver, Advanced
radio altimeter - RAM 2700A,Working of Identification of friend or foe transponder with ADS-B Out
IFFT-2460ALH1,Identification of friend or foe Interrogator (IFFI-3400A),Combined Interrogator and
Transponder (CIT).We observed the manufacturing methods from beginning i.e. acquiring raw
materials, storing them, its manufacturing, quality check and at last dispatching it to various customers.
And even the workers potentiality and there bonding with co-workers and machines to manufacture
these aircraft parts and Security maintenance at Hindustan aircraft limited.

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

“FOUNDRY AND FORGE DIVISION”

COMMUNICATION, NAVIGATION AND IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

Internship carried out at:

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

INTERNAL GUIDE: EXTERNAL GUIDE:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CHIKAKBALLAPUR - 562101, KARNATAKA

Signature of Guide Signature of Coordinator Signature of HOD

Prof. Prasanna Kumar D C Prof. Bhavana S DR. B. N. Shobha

Name of the Examiners: Signature of the Examiners:

I express wholehearted gratitude to Dr. B N SHOBHA who is the respectable HOD,

I thank my Internship Coordinator Assistant professor. Bhavana S for her guidance,

We visited extraordinary departments wherein they gave us quick concept approximately

We received a few information approximately UAV’s, designing carried on CATIA,

Figure No. Title Page No.

Figure 1.1 Shri Walchand Hirachand 8

Table 1.1 HAL corporate 9

LIST OF FIGURES III-IV

Chapter No. Chapter Name

CHAPTER 1 COMPANY PROFILE 8-11

Figure 1.1: Shri Walchand Hirachand[10]

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 8 2022-23

Table 1.1: HAL Corporate

 TEJAS - light Combat Aircraft (LCA)

 Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT)

 Light combat Helicopter (LCH)

 Various military and civil upgrades.

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 9 2022-23

 IRS (Indian Remote Satellite)

1.2 HAL PRODUCTS

Figure 1.2: HAWK[11] Figure 1.3: LCA[12]

Figure 1.4: IJI[13] Figure 1.5: HTT 40[13]

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 10 2022-23

Figure 1.6: DHRUV[14]

Figure 1.7: RUDRA[15]

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 11 2022-23

2.1 FERROUS METALLURGY

Figure 2.1: Brake Pads of aircraft[16]

● Fe based powder are used for jet engines

● Cu based powders are used for commercial planes

Requirement for the brake pads production:

➢ Preparation of fine powders

➢ Mixing & blending perfect ratio of binders (resign based on ferrous

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 12 2022-23

➢ Compacting/pressure sintering (pressure range- 30-240 kg/cm2)

Figure 2.4: Furnace used for sintering[19]

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 13 2022-23

Why is it done in an H2 controlled environment?

● Wide combinations of metals-metals & ceramics etc are possible through

● Small size i.e; upto 20 kg products are made.

● Mechanical properties are poor compared to cast or machined parts.

Dept.of Electronics & Communication engineering 14 2022-23

4. SEM & EDS

5. Dynamometer Testing - this testing is done as in break pads coefficient of friction is

Figure 2.6: Dynamometer[21]