Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
MIXING ENHANCEMENT IN
NON-CIRCULAR JETS
E.J. Gutmark*
Mechanical Engineering Department
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803-6413
Abstract
Non-circular jets have been the topic of
extensive research in the last fifteen years. They
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were identified to be an efficient passive flow
control technique which allows significant
improvements of performance in various practical
systems, at a relatively low cost, as they rely
solely on changes in the geometry of the nozzle.
The practical applications of non-circular jets
included improved large and small scale mixing
in low and high speed flows, improved
combustion efficiency, reduced combustion
instabilities, extended flammability limits, noise
suppression, and thrust vector control.
The flow field of non-circular jets is of
scientific interest New mechanisms of vortex
evolution and interaction, flow instabilities, and
turbulence generation were found. Stability
theory identified the effects of initial momentum
thickness distribution, aspect ratio and radius of
curvature on the initial flow evolution.
Experiments described complex vortex evolution
and interaction related to self-induction between
spanwise and axial vortices which lead to axis
switching in the mean flow field. Numerical
simulations revealed the details and clarified the
mechanism of the vorticity dynamics and the
effects of heat release and reaction on the non-
circular jets behavior.
The research of non-circular jets has also
been an excellent example of interaction among
universities, industry and government
laboratories. A topic which started as an
academic curiosity of an interesting flow
phenomenon, subsequently evolved through
technology transfer into various industrial
applications. This review intends to summarize
the extensive work which was carried out in the
last fifteen years on various non-circular jets, in
low and high speed flows. The investigations
reviewed include the experimental, theoretical,
and technological aspects of the subject.
1. Introduction and Background
1.1 Vortex dynamics
The mixing process in jet shear layers
involves bulk mixing which is driven by large
* Associate Fellow, AIAA
scale coherent structures and small scale mixing
dominated by small-scale turbulent eddies.
Large-scale coherent structures, characterized by
organized vorticity distributions, are intrinsic
features of the jet mixing layers at high Reynolds
numbers-Re (Brown and Roshko, 1974).
Control of the jet development in the practical
applications is strongly dependent on
understanding the dynamics and topology of these
structures; in particular, how the jet properties
can be affected through control of their
formation, interaction, merging, and breakdown.
In the axisymmetric jet configuration,
the formation of circular spanwise coherent
vortex rings and their sequential merging
dominate the shear-layer growth and entrainment
at moderately-high Re (Crow and Champagne
1971). Spanwise nonuniformities can add
complexity to the evolution of the jet shear
layer; sufficiently far downstream of the jet exit,
three-dimensionality becomes the crucial feature
of the jet structure and the streamwise vorticity
has dominant role in entraining fluid from the
surroundings (Liepmann and Gharib, 1992). The
three dimensional development of the jet is thus
particularly sensitive to the initial conditions,
which can be determined, for example, by the
nozzle geometry, or by some upstream
disturbances. Mechanisms such as self-
induction, vortex stretching, and vortex
reconnection are the main fluid-dynamical
processes involved (Hussain, 1986).
In non-circular jet the dominant jet
growth mechanism is different from
axisymmetric jets. The deformation dynamics of
the asymmetric vortices play an important role in
the jet evolution. Asymmetric jets are naturally
more unstable than the axisymmetric
counterparts (Michalke 1971). Amplification of
high order instability modes rather than the
axisymmetric mode which dominates the near
field region of a circular jet, brings about
complex vortex topologies. Elongated jets, for
example, tend to exhibit lateral flapping motion
along their minor axis (Crighton 1973).
There has been substantial effort devoted
to investigating the properties of jets emerging
from non-circular nozzles. Laboratory studies
using elliptic nozzles (Husain and Hussain,
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
1983; Ho and Gutmark, 1987) and using nozzles
with corners, e.g., rectangular, triangular, star-
shaped (Gutmark et al., 1989b; Toyoda and
Hussain, 1989, Quinn, 1992), have observed that
as the jet spreads, it can regularly evolve
through shapes resembling that at the jet-exit but
with axis successively rotated at angles
characteristic of the jet geometry (denoted as axis-
switching phenomena). This main underlying
mechanism for the enhanced entrainment
properties of non-circular jets relative to
comparable circular jets, results from self-induced
Biot-Savart deformation of vortex rings with
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non-uniform azimuthal curvature, and interaction
between spanwise and streamwise vorticity. Bio-
Savart law of induction states that the local
induced velocity is a function of the local radius
of curvature, r, such that
(ds x r)/r3
where y is the circulation and s is the coordinate
along the vortex line. This relationship shows
that the locations in the vortices which have a
smaller radius of curvature, such as the major
axis section of the elliptic jet or the vertices of a
square or triangular jets will move downstream
faster than the rest of the vortex, leading to its
deformation. While the vortex convects
downstream, the deformations yield complex
topology which result in redistribution of energy
between the spanwise and streamwise vortices
whose subsequent interaction increases the small
scale content of the jet
In supersonic shear layers the effect of
compressibility on mixing is critical, in addition
to the effects of velocity and density gradients.
The compressibility effect is best described by a
parameter called the convective Mach number
(Me) (Bogdanoff, 1982, Roshko and
Papamoschou, 1986). This parameter is defined
as the relative convection speed of the large-scale
structures in the shear layer to one of the free
streams, normalized by the speed of sound of the
latter. The spreading rate of the shear layer drops
sharply to about 20% of the incompressible
spreading rate as Me > 0.6.
Passive shear-flow control methods to
enhance the three-dimensionality of the flow, and
thus entrainment and mixing, were studied to
manipulate the natural development of coherent
structures and their breakdown into turbulence.
Passive mixing-control strategies are based on
geometrical modifications of the jet nozzle which
can directly alter the flow development
downstream relative to using a conventional
circular nozzle. The effect of non-circular nozzle
geometries and streamwise vorticity generators in
unforced and forced flows are reviewed in this
paper.
1.2 Stability characteristics and Initial
Conditions
Theoretical studies provided insight
regarding initial conditions which promote the
kind of azimuthally non-uniform growth
behavior underlying axis-switching. Using linear
stability analysis, three requirements were
determined to be necessary in order to initiate the
deformation of a non-circular vortex ring
(Koshigoe et al., 1989). First, the
eigenfunctions of the unstable modes should be
localized within the jet circumference without
excessive overlapping. The asymmetric shape of
the nozzle, with circumferentially varying
curvature, causes separation of the different
instability modes and localized amplification at
specific segments along the circumference (e.g.,
one mode is dominant at the major axis, while
another mode is dominant at the minor axis of an
elliptic jet). Second, the amplification rates of
the corresponding eigenmodes should be
comparable. This requirement can be fulfilled if
the azimuthal non-uniformities of the initial
shear layer are relatively small, so that the
growth rates of the velocity fluctuations
associated with the different modes are
comparable. Third, sufficient phase-speed
differences must exist between eigenmodes, so
that the streamwise location where the vortex
roll-up is completed relative to the edge of the
nozzle is dependent on the azimuthal shedding
location -Fig. 1 (e.g., the vortex shed from the
major axis side of an elliptic nozzle completes its
roll-up farther downstream relative to the vortex
shed from the minor axis side, the initial vortex
deforms, and thus the axis-switching sequence is
initiated). The fulfillment of these conditions
depends on the initial azimuthal distribution of
the momentum thickness and on the particular
geometry of the nozzle. More specific stability
analysis studies have focused on rectangular and
elliptical jet configurations (Morris 1988, Huang
et al. 1994).
1.3 Entrainment and Large-scale
Mixing
Interest in non-circular jets was driven
primarily by the potential to obtain enhanced
mixing. Elliptic and rectangular jets were shown
to have entrainment rate of over five times that
of a circular or 2-D jet due to vortex self
induction ( Ho and Gutmark 1987, Austin 1992).
Enhanced mixing was observed in both subsonic
and supersonic jets. An alternative method for
mixing enhancement involves the induction of
strong streamwise vorticity which interacts with
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
the spanwise vortices to yield increased large and
small scale mixing.
The near-field subsonic jet entrainment
measurements based on evaluations of the
normalized streamwise mass flux Q/Qo for
various low-AR non-circular geometries are
compared to typical axisymmetric jet data in Fig
2. Significant near-field entrainment
augmentation is evident when using non-circular
geometries. In the far field, the entrainment rates
of some of the non-circular jets asymptotically
approach the round jet value, indicating that
some of the jets tend to behave as axisymmetric.
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However, since higher far-field values of Q/QO
reflect higher near-field entrainment rates, actual
jet initial conditions (e.g., nozzle geometry,
presence of tabs) leave a clear imprint on the far
field jet behavior.
1.4 Axis Switching
Based on experimental, theoretical, and
computational studies involving various non-
circular geometries, the frequency of occurrence
of axis-switching for a given jet geometry is
found to depend on the jet initial conditions, such
as the aspect ratio, the azimuthal distribution of
momentum thickness 0, ratio 'De/0, and
turbulence level (e.g., Grinstein et al., 1995).
Non-uniform initial shear-layer thickness, in
particular, had a significant impact in the number
of observed axis-switching. For example, non-
uniform 9 determined by pipe nozzles —
typically involving much thicker initial 0 than
orifice nozzles and relatively larger 0 in the high
curvature (e.g., corner) regions — had the clear
effect of inhibiting axis-switching (Fig. 3). In
laboratory experiments with elliptic jets, the 3:1
jet issuing from a pipe did not show any axis-
switching (Schadow et al., 1987), with similar
jet growth rates at the minor and major axis,
both larger than for the round jet. This behavior
was in contrast with that of the contoured jet
elliptic jet (Ho and Gutmark, 1987), which
switched axis near the nozzle due to high
spreading rate at the minor axis and nearly zero-
growth at the major axis. Similar results were
obtained when comparing pipe and orifice
triangular (Koshigoe et al., 1989), and square
(Grinstein et al. 1995) jets for which the growth
rate at vertex and flat-sides of the pipe jets were
similar resulting in conservation of the initial
triangular (or square) nozzle orientation in the jet
cross-sections; however, the flat side grew faster
than the vertex side in the orifice jet, resulting in
a reversal (or 45-degree rotation) of the jet cross-
section orientation near x=De. The suppression
of axis switching in pipe jet with corners can
also be attributed to secondary corner flows
which inhibit inward vortex deformation in the
vertices (Su And Friedrich 1996).
Linear stability analysis (Koshigoe et
al. 1989) showed that when the initial shear
layers grow at the same rate so that the half-
widths cannot crossover, and when the initial
momentum thickness at one characteristic
direction — major-axis direction in the elliptic jet
or vertex-direction in the triangular and square
jets - is greater than in the other, instability
modes are not amplified sufficiently at the
corresponding side. Thus, the conditions for
initial vortex deformation leading to axis-
switching are not fulfilled. When crossover
occurs, such as in the case of the contoured
elliptic jet, the orifice square or triangular jets,
different instability modes are amplified at the
same rate at the two sections of the jets, leading
to vortex deformation and axis-switching of the
jet cross-section.
1.5 Streamwise Vorticity
The interaction between spanwise and
streamwise vortices constitutes an important
process not only in the evolution of non-circular
jets, as discussed later, but can be used as an
independent method of mixing enhancement in
circular, plane jets or even in conjunction with a
non-circular jet geometries, to achieve additional
enhanced mixing. Large scale structure in planar
shear layers and jets are altered and deformed by
interaction with secondary streamwise vortices
(Bernal and Roshko 1986, Liepmann and Gharib
1992, Martin and Meiburg 1991). The locations
of the streamwise vortex generation in natural
jets depend on upstream disturbances. When
active excitation is desired, different methods of
perturbations are used, including corrugated
splitter plates, lobed surfaces, vortex generators
and other nozzle shaping concepts.
2. Review of Specific Non-Circular
Jets
This section reviews investigations on
different geometrical configurations of non-
circular jets. The jets included in the discussion
are: elliptic, square and rectangular, triangular,
axial vorticity generating jets, and other jets with
different nozzle modifications. The issues
discussed regarding each one of the jets are: axis
switching locations, rate of entrainment,
spreading rates at different axes, production of
small scale turbulence, spanwise and streamwise
vortex interaction, effect of circumferential initial
momentum thickness distribution, effect of
forcing, aspect ratio, Reynolds number, radius of
curvature, density and velocity ratio and
compressibility effects.
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
2.1 Elliptic Jets
Elliptic jets were investigated
extensively due to their increased jet entrainment,
and enhanced mixing properties (Sforza et al.
1966, Trentacoste and Sforza, 1967, Sfeir
1975,76,79, Ho and Gutmark 1987, Husain and
Hussain 1983, Quinn 1989, Austin 1992). For
the elliptic jet, it was shown that large-scale
mixing was substantially increased relative to the
circular jet, due to axis switching associated with
the self induction processes of elliptic vortices
which causes their azimuthal deformation
(Dhanak and Debernardinis 1981).
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The axis switching results from faster
growth rate of the jet's shear layers in the minor
axis plane (plane parallel to the elliptic minor
axis) compared to that of the major axis (Fig.
4). This differential growth rates result in a
cross-over point at a certain downstream distance
from the nozzle where the jet's dimensions at the
two axes are equal and the cross-sectional shape
is quasicircular. In general, the growth rate of
the jet depends on many parameters such as:
Reynolds number, initial turbulence level and
spectral content emanating from upstream
disturbances, velocity and temperature ratio,
nozzle geometry, initial circumferential shear
layer thickness distribution and nozzle aspect
ratio. Quinn 1989 compared his measurements
of an elliptic jet issuing through a 5:1 elliptic
orifice at a Reynolds number of 2.08 x 10s with
2:1 elliptic jets emanating from a contoured
nozzle at a similar Reynolds number of 1 x 10s
(Ho and Gutmark 1987 and Husain and Hussain
1985). The cross-over location varied in the
range from 3 to 7 jet equivalent diameters. All
jets had an initial turbulence level of 0.4 to
0.5%. The difference between Quinn's jet and
the other two could be attributed to the
differences in jet geometry, aspect ratio and
orifice vs. contoured, which will yield a different
distribution of the initial shear layer thickness
distribution. The differences between the two
contoured jets were again attributed to the
difference between the nearly uniform initial
shear layer of H&H jet compared to 26%
circumferential variation in H&G jet.
Austin 1992 showed that the location
of the first axis switching increased downstream
with the mean exit velocity and inversely with
exit temperature (density ratio). This latter trend
was confirmed by linear stability calculations
which showed decreased growth rate of
disturbances with the addition of heat release
(Huang et al. 1994). The higher mixing rate of
the elliptic jet results in a reduction of the
potential core length to 3-4 equivalent jet
diameters compared with 5 diameters of the
circular jet.
The small-scale mixing is coupled with
the large scale vortices and was also enhanced as
a result of high azimuthal instability modes
amplified in this noncircular configuration (Ho
and Gutmark 1987). The mixing enhancement
was found to be effective for high Re and for
reacting flows (Schadow et al. 1987). In circular
jets the main mechanism leading to the shear
layer growth and formation of small scale
structures is the vortex interaction and merging
process (Ho and Huerre 1984). In contrast, the
dynamics of vortex self induction are more
important in the elliptic jet than the vortex
merging process. Austin 1992 measured nearly
equal mass entrainment values for both forced and
natural elliptic jets demonstrating this fact. He
also showed that a heated or low speed (M=0.1)
elliptic jet entrains up to 30% more mass than a
cold or a higher speed (M=0.25) elliptic jet. His
measurements confirmed that the production of
small scale structures is also related to the vortex
deformation process and showed that the small
scales are concentrated within the large scale
vortex cores.
Supersonic Flow
The superior mixing characteristics of
the elliptic and rectangular jets relative to the
circular jet, which were found in subsonic jets,
prevailed in the sonic free jets and were further
augmented by the shock structures of the
supersonic underexpanded jet. The major and
minor axes switched at the distance of less than
3 diameters from the nozzle in the underexpanded
elliptic and rectangular jets (M = 1.3), which was
significantly closer to the nozzle than in the
corresponding subsonic jets (Schadow et al.
1989).
At the low supersonic range, the jet
generates intense discrete tones called "screech".
The interaction of these tones with the jet's shear
layer results in the formation of large scale
vortices, alternating between the two sides of the
jet along its wide side. The resulting flapping
motion yielded a high spreading rate and
accelerated the mixing process. The
characteristic nondimensional frequency
associated with these vortices was StD=0.12.
Sonic and underexpanded elliptic jets
exhibited slightly higher spreading rates relative
to those of the rectangular jets with the same
aspect ratio. The vertices of the rectangular jet
reduced the coherence of the jet's large-scale
structures, thus weakening the self induction
process which promotes large spreading rates. It
is expected however, that the small scale mixing
is more intense in the rectangular jet due to the
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
effect of the stream wise vorticity generated at the
vertices.
The superior mixing characteristics of
the underexpanded elliptic free jets was also
demonstrated in hot-flow experiments (T = 1600
K). The centerline temperature decay in the free-
jet plume was faster in the elliptic and
rectangular jets than in the circular jet (Gutmark
et al. 1989a).
2.2 Square and Rectangular Jets
Similar to elliptic jets, the evolution of
square and rectangular jets is characterized by
differential growth rates along the major and
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minor axis and at the flat and vertex sections.
This difference in spreading rate results in some
cases in axis switching, or rotation of the jet
geometry in the downstream direction. The
production of small scale turbulence is also
different in the various circumferential sections.
This behavior depends on the initial conditions at
the jet exit which subsequently affect the vortex
dynamics. Grinstein and Gutmark 1995
discussed the role of initial conditions and other
parameters that affect the near field of a subsonic
square jet. In a combined computational and
experimental investigation, they examined the
effects of parameters such as the ratio of initial
momentum to equivalent diameter, turbulence
level, azimuthal momentum thickness
distribution, and Reynolds number on the jet
. growth pattern. Axis switching was shown to be
related to vortex deformation dynamics which
was enhanced for low turbulence level and thin
initial shear layer. The dependence on Reynolds
or Mach numbers was very weak. High
azimuthal coherence level and small shear layer
thickness to jet diameter ratio were crucial for the
initiation of strong vortex deformation and self
induction process. When these conditions were
not satisfied, as in a square pipe jet, axis
switching was not observed. The presence of
axis switching was necessary to obtain the high
entrainment rate characteristic to non circular
jets. Consequently, the square jet exhibits faster
spreading rate compared to a circular jet. The
small radius of curvature at the vertices, results
in downstream bending at these sections followed
by further stretching which produces small scale
streamwise vortices at the corners. This process
which is unique to jets flowing from nozzles
with corners, results in the initial axis switching
and amplification of small scale turbulence at the
vertices. However, the ensuing complex vortex
interaction between the spanwise and streamwise
structures makes the role of spanwise vortex
deformation dynamics limited in the subsequent
occurrences of axis switching. The jet evolution
in the far field is dominated by stream wise-rib
vortices interaction.
Rectangular jets combine the aspect
ratio features of an elliptic jet with the vertex
features of the square jet. Nozzle exit shape,
aspect ratio, initial turbulence level and Reynolds
number affect the development of the jet. The
spreading rate of the rectangular jet is typically
higher at the wide section compared with the
narrow side. This results in axis switching
similar to that of the elliptic jet. Detailed
investigation into the vortex dynamics of a
confined 2:1 rectangular jet revealed similar
features to those of the elliptic jet (Hertzberg and
Ho 1995). The cross-over downstream distance
from the nozzle is directly proportional to the
nozzle aspect ratio (Fig. 5-Krothapalli et al.
1981). Tsuchiya et al 1986 presented
measurements of four rectangular orifice jets with
aspect ratio varying from 1 to 5. The" switch
over location varied from less than 1 nozzle
width-h (width of narrow dimension) to nearly
lOh, respectively. The cross-over location of: the
2:1 contoured rectangular nozzle was slightly
closer to the nozzle. Quinn 1992b reported a
similar trend in an investigation on the effect of
aspect ratio on the development of orifice
rectangular jets. In his measurements the cross-
over location varied from 1 to 12 equivalent
diameters for aspect ratio variation between 1 to
20. In both investigations, the jet growth rate at
the minor exit plane was high, the jet width at
the major axis plane was initially reduced due to
the vena contracta effect. Following axis
switching the major axis growth rate becomes
higher than that of the minor axis resulting in a
second axis switching farther downstream. The
second crossover location is much less sensitive
to the original nozzle aspect ratio.
The instability modes of a 4:1
rectangular jet were studied by Shih et al. 1992.
In the very low subsonic range the dominant
instability mode was symmetric. In all higher
jet velocities the antisymmetric mode was most
amplified, except in the range of 0.6<M<0.85 in
which both symmetric and antisymmetric modes
coexisted with continuous switching between
them. The preferred mode of the jet varied
proportionally to the square root of the exit
Reynolds number.
Tsuchiya et al. 1986 showed that the
axial turbulence component along the jet's axis
increases faster for larger aspect ratios in the
orifice rectangular jet. In all jets studied, i.e.
orifice, contoured and pipe nozzles, the
turbulence growth rate reduced with Reynolds
number, however, the Reynolds number effect
was minimal for the pipe jet.
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
Supersonic Flow
The structure of large aspect ratio
(AR=10) underexpanded supersonic rectangular
jets were investigated by Krothapalli et al 1986.
They found that in the presence of shocks at off-
design conditions, the spreading rate of the
rectangular jet in the minor axis plane is even
larger than that of a rectangular subsonic jet.
Maximum growth was measured at a nozzle
pressure ratio of 3.8, which corresponds to a
fully expanded Mach number of 1.5. At a higher
pressure ratio the spreading rate decreased but
remained higher than that of a subsonic jet. The
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large spreading rate was a result of the interaction
between the screech producing
expansion/compression waves and the jet shear
layer.
The mixing characteristics of circular,
elliptic and rectangular jets were compared in
subsonic and supersonic speeds (Gutmark et al.
1989a). Both non circular jets had larger
spreading rate compared to circular geometry,
especially at the minor axis plane. This
enhanced mixing resulted in accelerated decay of
the mean velocity along the jets axis. The
improved mixing is more pronounced in the
supersonic flow due to the interaction of the
shock waves with the jet's shear layer. The
enhanced spreading rate at the minor axis plane is
also related to the higher sound emission at this
section of the jet. The spreading rate of the
rectangular jet is somewhat lower than that of the
elliptic jet since its vertices reduce the coherence
of the large scale structures. The self induction
of these vortices which lead to the enhanced
mixing rates is therefore weakened. A sonic
rectangular jet operating at design conditions is
predominantly symmetric in both major and
minor planes. At slightly underexpanded
conditions an asymmetric flapping mode appears
at the minor axis plane resulting in a large
spreading rate while the major axis remains
symmetric with small spreading rate. The large
amplitude flapping is reduce at a higher Mach
number, and the jet becomes quasi axisymmetric
with large spreading rate at both axis planes.
Rectangular supersonic jets with various
designs of the divergent section of the nozzle
were tested in a wide range of convective Mach
numbers (0.5<MC<2.2) (Schadow et al 1990).
The convective Mach numbers of the tests were
varied by changing the density of the inner and
outer jets either by altering the gas composition
or by varying the temperature. The nozzle design
with internal divergence along the wide side of
the nozzle increased the spreading rate by a factor
of 2 in the entire range of Mc<1.8. Direct
measurements of mixing rate were performed
using a gas sampling system to evaluate the
supersonic circular and rectangular jets. Tests
were conducted with free jet and coaxial jets,
where both jets were supersonic. In all test
conditions, the rectangular jets showed enhanced
mixing relative to the circular jet
Regarding the aeroacoustic
characteristics, Tarn 1988 proposed a vortex sheet
model to estimate the shock-cell structure of
rectangular and other non-circular jets. He
obtained good agreement with experimental data
in predicting the shock-cell spacing and the
screech frequency for large aspect ratio jets in a
range of Mach numbers between 1 and 2. He
predicted that the shock cell spacing is directly
proportional to the jet's Mach number, M,
while the screech tone nondimensional frequency
is inversely proportional to M.
2.3 Triangular Jets
Early investigations -of nozzles with
corners concentrated on the mean flow field of
triangular and square jets (Sforza et al. 1966,
Trentacoste and Sforza, 1967). Later studies of
jets emerging from noncircular nozzles with
corners showed that the introduction of sharp
corners in the nozzle can increase significantly
the fine-scale turbulence at the corners relative to
the flat segments of the nozzle (Schadow et al.
1988). Even in the case of the acoustically-
forced triangular shear layer, only small-scale
turbulent flow emanates from the corners while
highly coherent structures are generated at the flat
sides. The small-scale turbulence is generated by
three-dimensional flow which is formed in the
corner regions inside the nozzle (Su & Friedrich
1994). The coexistence of large scale eddies at
the flat sides and small scale turbulence at the
vertices makes the triangular jet an attractive
flow configuration for combustion systems. The
spreading rate of the flow at the flat sides is
larger than at the vertices. This results in a
switch in its shape orientation in the downstream
direction. The different shear-flow behavior at
the triangular flat-side and corner sections was
also predicted by linear stability analysis, when
extended to arbitrary-shape jets (Koshigoe et al.
1988, 1989). Their calculations and
experimental evidence showed that axis switching
is obtained only when the azimuthal momentum
thickness distribution at the nozzle is uniform
such as in an orifice jet However, in a pipe jet,
in which the boundary layer thickness at the
corners is significantly larger compared to the flat
sides, axis switching was suppressed.
Vandsburger and Ding 1995 forced a
triangular jet with non-integer counter
propagating azimuthal modes and demonstrated a
twofold increase in mass entrainment. Single
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
mode excitation did not modify the jet's far field
behavior.
Supersonic Flow
The flow characteristics of triangular and
square supersonic jets were found to be similar to
those of me subsonic jets (Gutmark et al 1991).
The spreading rate at the flat sides is larger than
at the corners, resulting in axis switching. The
small radius of curvature at the corners induces
vortex deformation evolving into streamwise
vortices. The ensuing complex vortex
interaction results in improved large and small
scale mixing. Similar streamwise vortices at the
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vertices were also reported in a diamond shaped
nozzle (Alviet al. 1996).
2.4 Axial Vorticity
The axisymmetry in circular jets can be
broken by introducing azimuthal excitation and
axial vorticity through suitable vortex generators
or tabs at the edge of the nozzle/orifice or so-
called "entrainment manipulators" upstream of
the jet exit (Monkewitz and Pfizenmaier, 1991),
or by using indented or corrugated nozzles
(Lasheras et al., 1992).
The concept of axial vortex mixing was
utilized at UTRC where the lobed mixer* was
proposed (Paterson 1984). This design provided
larger contact interface between the two mixing
flows, generated large scale axial vortices which
enhanced mixing and interacted with the spanwise
vortices shed from the convoluted splitter plate
(Fig. 6). Based on this concept, two-dimensional
lobed nozzles were tested in low subsonic flow
and compared to a 4.37 aspect ratio rectangular
jet and to a circular jet The enhanced mixing of
the lobed nozzle resulted in reduction of the jet
potential core length by 2-3 times relative to the
rectangular jet and 4-6 times relative to the
circular jet (Liu and Wu 1995). Axis-rotation of
the jet cross-section can also be observed in the
supersonic regime and as a feature of
azimuthally-excited round jets. Usage of tabs as
additional entrainment enhancers in the context of
non-circular geometries has also been reported
(Zaman, 1996a,b)
The important role of axial vortices for
mixing enhancement was also demonstrated in
nonreacting and combustion tests at United
Technologies Research Laboratory (McVey and
Kennedy 1989).
2.4.1 Vortex Generators
An alternative approach to passive near-
field entrainment augmentation using non-
circular nozzles, consists in breaking the
axisymmetry and promoting streamwise vorticity
production by enforcing azimuthal excitation
through suitable vortex generators or tabs at the
nozzle exit of round jets. The concept originally
tested in subsonic jets by Bradbury & Khadem
(1975) showed that the most effective
configuration consisting of two tabs can reduce
the potential core length and increase the decay of
the centerline velocity. Reeder and Samimy
1996 discussed the effect of the pair of counter-
rotating streamwise vortices generated by the tabs
on the mixing enhancement observed in the jet
(Fig. 7). The effect of tabs on the jet spreading
was reduced when the jet was forced due to the
reduction in azimuthal jet coherence during the
pairing process (Zaman and Raman 1997).
In a combined computational and
experimental study (Grinstein et al., 1996),
azimuthally excited round air jets emerging into
quiescent air background were considered, with
special focus on investigating the near-field jet
entrainment and associated combustion dynamics
of fuel injected along a thin annular region at the
rim of the nozzle. Flow visualizations of
experimental and computational jets revealed
tight coupling between ring and braid (rib)
vortices. The study included the interaction of co-
rotating and counter-rotating vortex pairs with
the spanwise vortices.
The jet vorticity evolution is dominated
by the dynamics of vortex-ring self-deformation
induced by the azimuthal excitation imposed at
the jet exit, the dynamics of rib vortices forming
in the braid regions between undulating vortex
rings, and strong interactions between rings and
ribs. Vortex interactions and azimuthal
instabilities lead to more contorted vortex rings.
The interaction between the vortex rings and the
streamwise vorticity introduced at the jet exit
results in a deformation of the flame into a
pentagonal shape which triggers processes of
self-induction and vortex interactions; the self-
deformation of the vortex rings due to the rapid
change in azimuthal curvature at the corners of
the pentagonal vortex sheet leads to a subsequent
36-degree axis-rotation of the jet cross-section.
Vortex generators enhanced mass
entrainment characteristics of rectangular jets
(Rogers and Parekh 1994), co-rotating vortex pair
yielded up to 50% increased entrained mass
without adding to the noise generation (Surks et
al 1994). The vortex generators provided
efficient way to introduce axial vorticity into the
jet at the proper location and with the desired
vorticity strength and orientation.
2.4.2 Tapered-Slot Nozzles
The tapered slot nozzle is a variation of
the elliptic nozzle aimed to reduce flow coherence
and enhance turbulence and small-scale mixing in
the combustor by generating axial vorticity. The
tapered-slot' nozzle consists of a conical
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
contraction region which leads into the slotted
outlet. The basic flow characteristics of this jet
are described in Gutmark and Schadow (1987).
The jet's growth pattern was very different from
the elliptic jet. The jet spread in the major axis
side was larger than in the minor axis side.
Consequently, the axis switching was not
observed in the tapered-slot jet. The growth rate
of the turbulence level in the core region, as well
as in the jet's circumference, was higher than in
the circular and elliptic jets. The increased
turbulence production was attributed to the axial
vorticity component generated by the nozzle's
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geometry.
Axial Vorticity-Supersonic Flow
Naturally occurring streamwise vortices
exist on the circumference of underexpanded jets.
The vortices are located between the intercepting
shock and the jet boundary. They have sufficient
strength to mix ambient fluid with the jet in the
supersonic section, hence they have an important
role in the jet mixing process. Novopashin & .
Perepelkin (1989) suggested that these vortices
are induced by small imperfections inside the
nozzle. The fact that mixing enhancing
streamwise vorticity can be induced in the jet
with such minute perturbations suggests that
larger vortex producing devices such as vortex
generators or tabs can be efficient mixing
enhancers as shown in the following section.
2.4.3 Tabs
Axial vorticity can be induced into the
jet flow by placing tabs at the jet exit such that
they are protruding into the flow (typically with
an area blockage of 1-2% per tab). Ahuja &
Brown (1989) measured enhanced mixing and
reduced screech noise using tabs in supersonic
jets. They showed that the most pronounced
effect was obtained with two tabs. Detailed
measurements on the effect of delta shaped tabs
showed that the pair of counter rotating vortices
produced by the tabs distorted the cross-sectional
shape of the jet and improved the mixing in the
shear layer surrounding a sonic and supersonic
underexpanded jet's potential core (Samimy et al
1993, Zaman et al 1994). The experiments were
performed mostly with a slightly underexpanded
jet. A pair of tabs caused bifurcation of the jet
and larger number of tabs distorted the jets with a
corresponding symmetry. The effect of tabs was
investigated also in conjunction with non-circular
nozzles such as rectangular nozzles having
various aspect ratios (3:1 to 8:1) and elliptic jets
(Zaman 1996a)-Fig. 8. The axis switching
phenomenon typical to elongated jets could be
controlled by the tabs and even completely
suppressed. The rate of entrainment could be
either increased or decreased relative to the
undisturbed jet. The data indicated that the
increased entrainment due to the tabs occurred in
the near field of the jet. The spreading rates,
which were measured only for x/D>10, were
either unaffected by the tabs or were even slightly
reduced. The mixing enhancement was
demonstrated for underexpanded supersonic jets
and can be partially attributed to the interaction
of the jet flow with the shocks produced by the
tabs (Wishartetal 1993).
2.4.4 Tapered-slot nozzle
The tapered-slot nozzle is a supersonic
convergent/divergent nozzle internally designed to
generate axial vorticity at the exit. It is an
extension of a design which was applied in
subsonic flows to generate axial vorticity. The
Mach 2 nozzle consisted of a 3:1 rectangular
throat and a conical diverging section leading to a
circular exit. The jet was tested from
overexpanded to underexpanded conditions, in a
Mach number range from 1 to 2.5 (design
conditions M=2) and compared with circular and
rectangular nozzles. The spreading rate of the jet
in the minor plane was significantly increased
(12%-70%, depending on M). At the major axis
plane, it was higher for M<1.8 and lower for
higher M. The most significant difference was the
absence of screech tones in the entire range of
operation due to the elimination of coherent
shock-waves for off-design conditions. The nozzle
increased secondary flow induction in a shrouded
configuration.
2.4.5 Lobed and splayed nozzles
The development of the High Speed
Civil Transport (HSCT) prompted interest in rapid
mixing of supersonic flows for noise reduction
while minimizing the thrust loss penalty
associated with mixing enhancement techniques.
Lobed mixers were shown to be effective in
mixing supersonic flows by inducing strong axial
vorticity, while maintaining thrust level
comparable to an axisymmetric nozzle. Based on
the experience with forced mixers in the shape of
lobed mixing layers, Tillman at al (1991) tested
several configurations of jet nozzle designs to
enhance mixing of a Mach 1.5 jet at a temperature
of 1000°F discharged into a free stream flowing at
M=0.5. Splayed and saw-toothed jets were
compared with circular and rectangular jets having
the same area, area ratio and width. The splayed
jet was designed to induce strong circulation
producing radial velocities without associated flow
separations and pressure losses. The splayed jet
provided significant improvement of mixing with
a factor of two reduction in the potential core
length relative to a rectangular nozzle (AR=3.7)
operating at the same conditions.
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
2.4.6 Ramped nozzle
NASA scientists developed swept ramp
fuel injectors which were designed to enhance
mixing in a scramjet combustor between the fuel
and supersonic air flow (Northam et al. 1989),
Based on this concept, a converging-diverging
Mach 2 nozzle having five swept ramps on its
diverging section was tested at two convective
Mach numbers: 0.23 and 0.86-Fig.9 (Yu et al
1995). The shear layers of the ramped jets had
significantly higher growth rates compared to
those of a circular jet At MC = 0.23, an increase
of 44% was observed, while at the higher
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convective Mach number of MC = 0.86, the
increase was nearly 110%. How visualizations
showed that the ramps contribute to enhancing
the shear layer growth by creating well organized
large scale structures that resemble axial vortices
in the shear layer.
2.5 Other Geometrical Configurations
Various nonaxisymmetric supersonic
convergent nozzles were tested in a fully-
expanded Mach number range of up to 1.6 - Fig.
10 (Wlezien & Kibens 1988). Asymmetric
nozzles either with one short extension tab or
moderate inclination (beveling) generated
deflection of the flow without significant change
in the spreading rate. Nozzles with long
extension tabs, steep inclination or with two
extension tabs produced large spreading rate in
one direction and contraction in the other.
Multiple extension tabs expand part of the
pressure internally, yielding a larger spreading
rate with a faster decay of the core Mach number.
Rectangular jets with a modified long side were
used to generate streamwise vortices in order to
enhance mixing and reduce noise (Samimy et al
1997). The nozzles performed well at
underexpanded conditions but showed reduced
performance or no change at design or
overexpanded conditions.
Beveled Mach 1.4 converging/diverging
and converging rectangular nozzles were
compared with regular rectangular jets (Rice &
Raman 1993b). Single beveled jets showed
marginal increased in spreading rate. Double
bevel increased the jet entrainment rate by over
50% in the first 10 equivalent diameters. The
double beveled jet exhibited rapid transverse flow
divergence, splitting the jet into two sub-jets.
The double beveled jet has an advantage over the
single beveled jet by maintaining axial flow to
maximize thrust.
Supersonic jets from notched nozzles
were modified by the trailing vortices shed from
the swept edges of the notches (Pannu &
Johannesen 1976). The effect of these vortices
was to enhance the jet spreading in the notch
plane by forming low speed side jets. The center
line decay rate was significantly enhanced. Also
the jet noise was suppressed as the noise sources
were surrounded by low speed turbulent flow.
3 Applications
Understanding the detailed dynamics of
jet entrainment and mixing is of fundamental
importance for various applications such as noise
suppression, combustion, lift augmentation, heat
transfer, and chemical processes. Non-circular
jets were used to improve performance of various
types of airbreathing engines and other
combustors, to obtain thrust vector control
(TVC), to suppress noise, and to enhance
supersonic mixing. Examples of some of these
applications are given below.
3.1 Jet Noise
Ahuja et al. 1990 compared several
nozzle geometries to evaluate their effect on jet
noise reduction in high subsonic and supersonic
jets (Fig. 11). He concluded that the circular jet
produces the highest level of noise. The noise
produced by rectangular jets was lower compared
to the circular jet, with higher level emitted at
the wider side. Reduction were obtained in both
subsonic and supersonic velocities. Triangular
jet yielded similar reductions particularly at the
directions aligned with its base. The elliptic jet
showed a small noise reduction at subsonic
speeds but a small increase in both axes at a
supersonic speed. Adding tabs to the circular or
rectangular nozzles was ineffective and actually
increased the broadband noise especially at
subsonic speeds. Adding two notches to the
circular jet and the rectangular jet was ineffective
but four notches in the rectangular jet reduced the
noise in the major axis plane. All these
observations were related to the effect of the
various configurations on the jet mixing.
3.2 Heat Transfer
An elliptic jet with an aspect ratio of
2.14 was used to study heat transfer by
impingement on a flat plate. The maximum
stagnation point heat transfer for the elliptic jet
occurred at a shorter nozzle to plate distance
compared to a circular jet due to the shorter
length of the elliptic jet potential core. The
Nusselt number in the impingement region for
the elliptic jet was larger than that for the circular
jet due to the larger entrainment and the dynamics
of the large scale coherent structures in this jet
(Lee et al. 1994).
3.3 Combustion and Mixing Control
Understanding the detailed dynamics of
jet entrainment and mixing is of fundamental
importance for efficient and clean combustion
control. In a reacting turbulent jet, the mixing
between the reactants participating in the
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
combustion or between the hot reaction products
and the fresh reactants needed to sustain
combustion, is a crucial part of the combustion
process. Non-circular jets can be used to
enhance both the large scale and small scale
mixing necessary for efficient combustion.
3.4 Thrust Vector Control (TVC)
Elongated jets such as rectangular,
elliptic or diamond shaped, are best suited to
aerodynamic based control due to their inherent
lateral instability in their wide dimension. The
aerodynamic methods have the potential to be
simple with low weight penalty, thrust loss, and
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cost. The thrust redirection method by
counterflow was proposed as a means of TVC
and is more easily applicable in a non circular
configuration (Strykowski et al. 1996).
4 Summary
This review discussed the flow field of
several different non-circular jet geometries and
the pertinent physical mechanisms which control
their development. Issues common to all non-
circular jets are axis switching and the azimuthal
dependence of the shear layer spreading rate and
turbulence production. The evolution of the jets
is shown to depend strongly on initial conditions
at the nozzle including momentum thickness
azimuthal distribution, ratio of shear layer
thickness to jet diameter, aspect ratio, local
radius of curvature, Reynolds and Mach numbers,
the velocity and density ratios.
These initial conditions determine the structure of
the asymmetric vortices which roll up in the jet's
near field. As the vortices convect downstream
vortex deformation and self induction processes
control the downstream evolution of the jet The
increased entrainment characteristics of the non-
circular jets and the enhanced fine scale mixing
are the result of complex interactions between the
spanwise and streamwise vortices which are
unique to this type of flowfield.
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disturbances inside the nozzle," AIAA J. ,
31,7,1340-41(1993).
R. Wlezien , V. Kibens, "Influence of nozzle
asymmetry on supersonic jets," AIAA J.
26,1,27-33(1988).
K. Yu, K. Schadow, K. Kraeutle, E. Gutmark,
"Supersonic flow mixing and combustion
using ramp nozzle," J. Propulsion and
Power, 11,6, (1995).
K. Zaman, M. Reeder and M. Samimy, "Control
of an Axisymmetric Jet Using Vortex
Generators," Phys. Fluids, 6, 2, 778-792,
(1994).
K. Zaman, "Spreading Characteristics and Thrust
of Jets from Asymmetric Nozzles", AIAA
96-0200 (1996a).
K. Zaman, 'Axis Switching and Spreading of an
Asymmetric Jet: The Role of Coherent
Structure Dynamics," J. Fluid Mech., 316,
1-27, (1996b).
K. Zaman and G. Raman, "Effect of Controlled
Excitation on a Tabbed Jet," AIAA 97-1216,
(1997).
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

(a)

0,25
A VERTEX . PIPE JET
OFLAT
0.20

.0.15
e
0.10

O.Oi

b) 0.00

(b) X/D. - 0 1 A X/D, • 0.4 A X/D. « 1.0

Downloaded by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY on November 5, 2014 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1997-1876

Figure 3: Variation of momentum thickness

Figure 1: itrcaklines of a 2:1 elliptic jet
projected onto the major (a) and minor (b) axis
planes, Huang et al 1996.
with axial distance for the vertex and flat side;of
the triangular jet (a) orifice jet, (b) pipe jet, and
the corresponding evolution of the jet cross-
sections for the two jets (c) orifice, (d) pipe at
different streamwise distances. (Koshigoe et al.
1989).-

(a)

(b)

Figure 2: Near field entrainmcnt measurcmenis

of diflercnt non-circular jets. Figure 4: (a) Spreading rate of a 2; 1 elSptic jet at
the major and minor axis planes. The Switch
over point is evident, (b) Contours of velocity
along the elliptic jet cross sections at different
axial distance exhibiting axis switching.
(Gutmark « ai 1987).
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

160

140

120

100
r
to
60

40

20
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10 20 30 40

Figure 5: Variation of axis switching location in
a rectabgular jet with nozzle's aspect ratio.
(Krothapalli et al. 1981).
Figure 7: Sketch of the streamwise vorticity
patterns generated about a single tab (top) and the
resultant jet deformation due to two tabs
(bottom) for (a) delta tabs, (b) inverted delta tabs.
Reeder and Samimy 1996.

HOT
CORE

1.5

(b)
IDEAL>
1.0
w. f^
W P V TT,

OJ5

CONVENTIONAL
EJECTOR

0 1 2 3 4
Figure 8: Streamwise variation of jet half
A./Ap velocity width at the major and minor axis
planes, (a) no tab, (b) two tabs on ends, (c) two
Figure 6: (a) Forced mixer lobe contours, (b) tabs on ends, (d) with acoustic excitation.
supersonic mixer ejector pumping performance. Zaman 1996a.
Tillman and Presz 1993.
 Copyright© 1997, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

nOUHO BASE NOZZLE

(a) RECTANGULAR

EUimCAL TRIANGULAn
nECTAHGULAR

O
TWO NOTCHES TWO NOTCHES ./

'© I
TWONOTCMtS TWO TADS /

roun HOTCHES
TWO TADS AND TWO NOTCHES
Downloaded by PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY on November 5, 2014 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1997-1876

-1————I————I————I————I————I———l————IT

(b)

0 - «o* $ • o
M • 1.30
(Primary & Seccnfla-y)_
77^^-CIRCULAR (BASELINE

COAXIAL RECTANGULAR

e
, 00

Figure 9: Planar Mie-scattering images of Mach

2 jets; (a) and (b) are freejets from circular and
i t t i t .... r r
ramped nozzles. (C) and (d) show the 10 20 JO "0 SO
rntoutticY - KHZ
t>0 70 80 90 100

corresponding jets with M=1.3 coaxial flow. Yu

etaL1995. -

Axitymmnnc. A
(c)
0-90-
M - 1.38
(Primary & Secondary)
CIRCULAR (BASELINE)

Figure 11: (a) Jet noise suppression concepts,

and noise spectra comparing coaxial rectangular
jet versus circular jet,M= 1.38, (b)minor axis
plane, (c) Major axis plane. Ahuja et al. 1990.

Figure 10: Non axisymmetric nozzles

investigated at underexpanded conditions for
mixing enhancement and noise reduction.
Wlezien and Kibens 1988.