18AN62 – Control Systems – Unit 1 Lecture Notes

(For private circulation only)

Unit 1 Syllabus
Introduction to Control Systems - Introduction, Examples of control systems, representation and
types and classification of control system, concepts of feedback, Laplace transform of system
equation and concept of s-plane representation of roots of system characteristic equation.
Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems - Introduction, Differential equations of physical
systems – Mechanical systems, Translational & rotational systems, Electrical systems, hydraulic
systems, transfer function representation.

1.1 Introduction to Control Systems:

Engineering can be defined as the art of putting together elements, natural or manufactured, so as
to get the optimum conversion of resources for the benefit of mankind. Control engineering can
be viewed as study of behavior of such built-up systems subjected to control actions.
A system can be natural, man-made or combination of the two.
In modern times, control systems play a very important role in our daily life. The concepts of
automatic control are fundamental and well mixed in every aspect our life touches. From a simple
bread toaster to a complex modern power plant, there is a series of control principles that affect
our life.
Elementary acts such walking or moving a chalk to a particular point on the black board illustrate
control principles and advanced examples of launching a satellite, regulating the power generation
in a power plant, tracking an enemy plane on radar etc. show exhaustive application of control
principles.
Practically an engineer has to deal with systems in any industry he / she lands in, and so it is
necessary to be familiar with the analysis and design aspects of modern control systems. One must
be aware that the principles of control theory are applicable to engineering as well as non-
engineering fields. Also, control engineering can be associated with general engineering,
biological, sociological, organizational, defense, etc.

1.2 Some important Definitions:

Input System Output

Fig 1 a) Typical block diagram representation of a system

(1) Control: It means to regulate, direct or command a system so that the desired objective is
attained.

1|Page
(2) Input: The stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an external source in order
to produce the output is called input.

Fig 1 b) Block diagram of a feedback control system

(3) Output: The actual response obtained from a system is called output.
(4) Plant: It is the body or process or machine whose particular quantity or condition is controlled.
(5) System: A system is an arrangement of or a combination of different physical components
connected or related in such a manner as to form an entire unit to accomplish an objective for some
input(s).
It can be seen that a system has an input, an output and a process to achieve this input-output
combination.
Combining the above definitions, we can define control system as:
(6) Control System: It is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a
manner so as to regulate, direct or command it-self to achieve a certain objective (or command
some other system to achieve a certain objective).
Thus a control system must have the following:
(i) An input or inputs; (ii) An output or outputs; (iii) An arrangement to process and
achieve the input-output objective.

2.1 Types of control systems:

Control action is the actuating signal that is responsible for stimulating the plant / process to
produce the output (Fig 1 b)).
Depending on whether such a control action is dependent on the output or not, control systems are
categorized as:
(a) Open loop systems (b) Closed loop systems.

3.1 Open Loop System:

Definition: A system in which the control action is totally independent of the output of the system
is called as open loop system. Open systems are calibrated systems and the control action is equal
to the input.

2|Page
 Reference Controller Plant / Controlled
Input r(t) Process Output c(t)
Control
action Fig 2 Typical Block Diagram

3.2 Examples of Open Loop System:

Automatic hand drier; automatic washing machine; bread toaster; automatic(Nescafe) coffee
server; automatic milk server; electric lift; traffic signals; theater lamp dimmer; cold drink - milk
bottling system; automatic Xerox machine are few examples of open loop systems
3.3 Advantages of open loop systems:
1. Contains less number of components
2. They are simple in construction and design.
3. They are economical.
4. Easy for maintenance.
5. Not much problems of stability.
6. Convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.
3.4 Disadvantages of open loop systems:
1. Output could be inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy is dependent on accuracy of
calibration.
2. Inaccurate results are obtained with system parameter variations, internal & external
disturbances.
3. To maintain better accuracy, recalibration of the controller is necessary from time to time.
4.1 Closed Loop System:
Definition: A system in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output is called as
closed loop system.
Control
action

Fig 3 Generalized block diagram of closed loop (Feedback) control system

There is a comparison of the output and reference input state. This property is known as
feedback and this is the main difference when compared to the open loop systems.

3|Page
Definition: Feedback is that property of the system which permits the output to be compared with
the reference input so that appropriate control action is formed.
In fig 3: r (t) ~ reference input; e (t) ~ error signal; b (t) ~ feedback signal; m (t) ~ actuating signal
/ manipulated signal; c (t) ~ controlled output
The comparison between reference input r (t) and feedback b (t) gives the error e (t). When
feedback signal is positive, system is called Positive feedback System and
e (t) = r (t) + b (t). When feedback signal is negative, system is called as Negative feedback System
and e (t) = r (t) - b (t), which would generally be the case.
This error is applied to the controller which gives the activating signal m (t) for the process. (In
many cases the controller may contain more than one block in series so as to achieve necessary
power amplification and compensation to drive the process).
The action of the controller will be to drive the controlled output in such a manner that the error is
reduced to zero i.e. the feedback signal is equal to reference input r (t).
4.2 Important terms in closed loop system are given below: (Refer Fig3)
(i) Command Input: The command is the input signal, which corresponds to the desired output,
given to the reference transducer
(ii) Reference Transducer: The transducer which generates a reference input when a command
signal is given to it.
(iii) Reference Input r(t): It is an external signal applied to a feedback control system in order to
obtain a specific action from the system. .
(iv) Primary Feedback Signal b(t): It is the signal proportional to controlled output c(t)and is
algebraically summed with reference input r(t) to get the error signal e(t ).
(v) Error Signal: It is the signal obtained by algebraic sum of reference input signal and primary
feedback signal, i, e. r(t) ± b(t).
(vi) Controller: It the unit which produces the manipulated output based on the control scheme
and error signal.
(vii) Manipulated Variable: The output of the controller is the manipulated variable that controls
the output of plant
(viii) Plant: It is the body or process or machine whose particular quantity or condition is
controlled
(ix) Disturbance: It is an undesired input e.g. noise.
(x) Controlled Output: It is the output of the plant / process to be controlled.
(xi) Feedback Element: It is the transducer that produces feedback signal b(t) proportional to
controlled output c(t)
(xii) Forward Path: It is the transmission path from the actuating signal to the controlled output
(xiii) Feedback Path: It is the transmission path from the controlled output to the primary
feedback signal b(t)
4.3 Examples of Closed Loop System:
Automatic electric iron; DC motor speed controlled by tachometer feedback; railway reservation
status display; missile launched and auto-tracked by radar; Servo voltage stabilizer; human
4|Page
perspiration system; sun-seeker solar systems; water level controller; automobile driver executing
a curved turn; paper winding machine; automatic door opening and closing system; etc.
Example 1: Automatic Electric Irons
An Automatic Electric Iron regulates the temperature of iron such that for a given cloth selection
the temperature remains in a specified range. When the temperature falls below the lower limit,
heating is started and when it exceeds the upper limit heating is stopped. Thus it is closed loop
with respect to temperature as the control action (which initiates heating or not heating the coil)
depends on the output temperature. This is the principle of closed loop temperature control. Refer
Fig. 4

Fig 4 Automatic Electric Iron

In simple electric iron systems bimetallic strips are used but in sophisticated systems, the feedback
transducer could be a thermocouple or remote temperature detecting device or some similar device.
Example 2: Voltage Stabilizers / Regulator:
Single phase AC supply is usually expected to be 230 V. But variations from200 to 250 V are
common, voltages being low in day and high in night. There are many devices that cannot tolerate
such high input variations. Voltage stabilizers accept variable input voltages and give fixed voltage
as outputs. A brief discussion will enable to appreciate the control principles involved.
Principle of operation:
The circuit of a voltage stabilizer basically consists of a voltage sensor. It is configured to detect
the rise or fall of the AC voltage at the load. As soon it senses a risky input voltage to the load, it
immediately energizes the relays connected to it. These relays in turn swaps and switches the
appropriate winding terminals of the auto transformer to correct and stabilize the output voltage.
Thus the appliance which is connected to this output of the voltage stabilizer circuit always
receives a safe, tolerable voltage and is able to function reliably, irrespective of the fluctuating
input voltages.
The example described with numerical values: Consider a transformer having 100 turns on the
primary winding and 150 turns on secondary side. Let the secondary winding be provided with
multiple tapping points. It is known that,𝑁 = 𝑁 ; where N0 is the number of turns in the
secondary winding (variable), V0 is the required voltage (fixed), Ni is the number of turns in the
primary winding (fixed) and Vi is the input voltage (variable).
Consider a transformer with 100 turn primary (Ni). The voltage per turn is 250 / 100 = 2.5 V.
Assume that the input voltage exceeds normal voltage of 230 V, say to 250 (V i). To get 230 V (Vo)
at the output, the number of turns at the secondary side should be (230 / 250)*100 = 92, and hence
the switch should be connected to a point below A (i.e. towards C side). Hence when input is above
normal, number of turns of secondary is to be reduced.
Similarly when voltage is say 180 V, secondary should be such that it is a step-up transformer i.e.
tapping towards B side. (Fig. 5)

5|Page
As fixed taps are used voltage will be around 230 V and not exact. Most of the voltage stabilizers
one finds for refrigerators are of this type. A block diagram representation of this type of voltage
stabilize is shown in Fig 6.

Fig 5 principle of operation of voltage stabilizer Fig 6 Voltage Stabilizer

Servo voltage stabilizer: Instead of using a fixed tap, the entire secondary can be tapped at any
point as shown in Fig. 7
In this arrangement a servo motor drives the shaft on which the tapping is mounted. Hence voltage
is better regulated at 230 V than the fixed tap secondary. Such schemes are available in market as
Servo voltage stabilizers. They are usually used as fixed input voltage power supply for computers,
Xerox machines, sophisticated CNC machines, etc.

Fig 7 Servo Voltage Stabilizer

Servo voltage stabilisers in which position of secondary tap is controlled using servomotor is an
example of servomechanisms.
Solid state devices based voltage stabilizers are also available.
A voltage stabilizer is a device designed to reduce the variations in voltage of the supply to some
other apparatus with fixed load whereas a regulator is one maintains reference input or
command at a set point, which is a constant value, for a long time, often the entire period of
operation.

Additional explanation as to what is the difference between a voltage regulator and a

stabilizer?

6|Page
The term "voltage regulator" is normally used in DC applications. Electronic circuits demand
various DC voltages - like for example, 5V, 9V, 15V, etc. - at various current levels. DC power
supplies are used - like the one inside your CPU - typically a switch mode power supply delivering
+/-5V, +/- 12V, 3.3V - DC for a max load of ~500W. The input of such power supplies is 230V
AC. A well designed power supply will provide a 'regulation' of the output DC voltage within a
range of +/- 1 mV or even 0.05 mV when fully loaded. In other words, the 230V AC is dropped to
the required voltage via a step down transformer and the resultant voltage is 'regulated' through a
solid state electronic circuit so that when a load is applied, there is no big voltage drop. When DC
voltage drops, the residual AC voltage shows up as 'ripple' (noise, or hum) and when this level is
high, it interferes with the performance of the circuit. The DC voltages need to be quite precise.
Demand for regulated power supplies increased during the last few decades, so now component
manufacturers are making voltage regulators on a chip. Using this and just a few other components
like the transformer, resistors and capacitors, a good DC regulator at the required voltage is
available for use. The advantage is, this can be mounted on the PC board itself.
A voltage stabilizer, on the other hand is an equipment that 'stabilizes' the AC voltage which is
usually fluctuating. For example, the voltage delivered to homes by the Power Corporations is
supposed to be 234V AC 50 Hz but in many cities and towns - especially in villages - the voltage
measured is quite low - like 170 to 200V AC with the result, household appliances like refrigerators
may not work efficiently. Sometimes the voltage may shoot up to 250V and above due to some
fault, damaging the appliances. In a voltage stabilizer, voltage correction from such 'over' and
'under' voltage conditions is performed through 'boost' and 'buck' operations. During under voltage
condition, boost operation increases the voltage to a rated level while buck operation reduces the
voltage level during over voltage condition. These operations are carried out automatically through
appropriate electronic circuitry.
Normally, the buck and boost voltage is 30V. If the voltage drops to 200V, then the stabilizer will
boost the voltage by 30V and bring the output back to 230V and if the voltage drops further to
170V the same thing is repeated by another 30V boost. Of course, there is a limit up to which such
stabilizers can handle the voltage fluctuations - usually 170V 250V. If the voltage goes beyond
this range, the stabilizer simply switches off, protecting the appliance.]
Example 3: Perspiration: When the body temperature goes up, we perspire. Body heat is used to
evaporate the sweat and our temperature falls as a result. Hence our body maintains constant skin
temperature and is closed loop system. A simplified block diagram representation of the
perspiration system is given in Fig. 8.

Fig 8 Perspiration system (Biological system)

Example 4: Identify the organ system components and the input and output and describe the
operation of the biological control system of a human-being reaching for an object (with eyes open
and blind-folded).
7|Page
The basic components, of this intentionally oversimplified control system description, are the
brain, arm and hand, and eyes (Fig 9).
The input is object position. Hand position is the output for the system.
The objective of the control system is to reduce the distance between hand position and object
position to zero.
The eyes, employed as a sensing device, are "feeding back” continuously the position of the hand
to the brain.
The brain sends the required signal to the nervous system of the arm and hand to reach for the
object. This signal is amplified in the muscles of the arm and hand, which serve as power actuators
for the system.
The dashed lines and arrows, shown in Fig 9, represent the direction of information flow. From
the description it can be understood that this is closed loop system. This can be converted to open
loop by closing the eyes, the sensing device.

Fig 9 Human- being reaching for an object Fig 9 a) Block diagram representation

Fig 10. Possible arrangement for closed loop bread toaster

5.1 Typical steps to ascertain whether a system is closed loop or open loop.
Aim: What is the objective of the system under study?
Input: What is given to the system?
8|Page
Output: What the system is supposed to give as final product?
Mechanism (Method) of achieving: How it achieves objective?
Check for closed loop or open loop: Does system see present state of output and accordingly
change the parameters associated with the method? If yes –closed loop, if no – open loop

5.2 Some practical examples are discussed below:

(A) Discussion on Electric Hand Drier:
An electric hand drier sends a gush of hot air, with fixed rate of flow and at a fixed temperature,
when wet hands are taken near it. The input is the wet hands and output is dried hand. A photocell,
gives actuating signal whenever light flow is interrupted and stimulates the control action. The
process supplies a whirl of hot air for fixed duration.

Aim: What is the objective of the system To dry wet hands

under study?

Input: What is given to the system? Wet hands

Output: What the system is supposed to Dry hands

give as final product?

Mechanism: How it achieves objective? By blowing hot air over the wet hands
(at a fixed temperature, fixed flow rate and for
fixed duration)

Check for closed loop or open loop:
Does system see present state of output
and accordingly change the mechanism
parameters? If yes –closed loop, if no –
open loop
Does the system see the present state i.e. the
wetness of the hand and changes the duration of
blowing of the hot air any other parameter? – No
Hence – Open loop

(B) Discussions on Automatic Washing Machine:

The output is the clean cloths when loaded with them. The soap, water etc. can be taken as inputs
too. The control action is determined by the timer which determines wash and wrings cycles. The
output is less than 100% clean at start, and ideally at the end of the time is 100% clean. The control
action has nothing to do with the actual status of 'clean' cloth. (If a 100% clean cloth is dropped,
still the machine washes it). Hence open loop.

Aim: What is the objective of the system To clean clothes

under study?
Input: What is given to the system? Dirty clothes
Output: What the system is supposed to give Clean the clothes
as final product?
9|Page
 Mechanism: How it achieves objective? Washes clothes with detergent for fixed
time.
Check for closed loop or open loop: Does Does the system see the degree of
system see present state of output and cleanliness of the clothes and accordingly
accordingly change the mechanism change the mechanism? – No
parameters? If yes –closed loop, if no – open Hence open loop
loop

A table of comparison of open and closed loop systems is presented below:

S. No Open Loop System Closed Loop System
1 No feedback Hence feedback elements Feedback exists. Hence feedback
absent. elements exist.
2 No error detector Error detector is present
3 Total number of components are less Total number of components are more
4 Its inaccuracy depends on calibration It is accurate (Continuous error
accuracy correction occurs)
5 Highly sensitive to changes in plant Less sensitive to changes in plant
parameters, operating environment and parameters, operating environment and
to disturbances. to disturbances.
6 Small bandwidth. Large bandwidth
7 Stable May become unstable.
8 Simple to construct and cheap. Hence Complicated to design and build hence
ownership cost and maintenance costs are ownership cost and maintenance costs
low are high
9 Typical Examples: Coffee maker Typical Examples: Guided missile,
automatic toaster, hand drier, etc. Temperature control of oven,
Perspiration, Servo voltage stabilizers,
etc.

6.1 Feedback:
Refer Fig. 11 When feedback is given the error between system input and output is reduced.
However, improvement of error is not the only advantage.

Fig. 11: Effects of Feedback

10 | P a g e
The effects of feedback are:
(1) Gain is altered by a factor 1 / 1 +G H
(2) Reduction of the effect of parameter variation by a factor 1 + G H
(3) Improvement in sensitivity.
(4) Stability may be affected
Points (1) and (4) are disadvantages that can be overcome by gain amplification and good design
respectively.

7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed Loop Systems

Advantages:
(i) Accuracy is very high as any error arising is corrected.
(ii) It senses changes in output due to environmental or parametric changes, internal disturbances
etc. and corrects the same.
(iii) Reduced effect of nonlinearity
(iv) High Bandwidth.
(v) Facilitates Automation.
Disadvantages:
(i) Complicated in design
(ii) More number of components and hence expensive
(iii) Maintenance is expensive.
(iv) System may become unstable.

9.1 Requirements of an Ideal Control System

Control systems are always designed for a specific purpose. To achieve the required objective, a
good control system must satisfy the following requirements.
1) Accuracy: A good control system must be highly accurate. It should operate with as little
error as possible. The open loop systems are generally less accurate and hence feedback is
deliberately introduced to reduce the error in the system. Such closed loop system requires a design
so that steady state error tends to zero.
2) Sensitivity: (Sensitivity in the present context is the minimum magnitude of input signal
required to produce a specified output signal, for example, sensitivity of a transducer is the
relationship between input and output power)
Sensitivity requirements often play an important role in the design of control systems. All physical
elements have properties that change with environment and age and the parameters of control
systems cannot be considered to be constant over the entire operating life of the system e.g. the
winding resistance of motor changes with respect to time. A good control system should be very
insensitive to such parameter variations but sensitive to the input commands. It requires that,
its performance should not be affected by small changes in the certain parameters of the system.

11 | P a g e
3) External disturbance or noise: (can be internal or external) All the physical systems are
subjected to external disturbances and noise signals; during operation. Brush and commutator
noise in motors, thermal noise voltage in electronic circuits are good examples of noise while effect
of wind on performance of antenna is a good example of external disturbance. A requirement of
a good control system is that the system is insensitive to noise and external disturbances but
sensitive to the input commands. It should be able to reduce the effects of undesirable
disturbances.
4) Stability: A concept of stability means output of system must follow reference input and must
produce bounded output for bounded input. However due to wrong selection of parameters it is
possible that output tends to increase without bounds. This is called as unstable condition. A good
control system is one which is inherently stable in nature.
5) Bandwidth: This requirement is related to the frequency response of the system. For the input
frequency range, it should give satisfactory output. The frequency range for which output is
satisfactory is its bandwidth. The satisfactory output means maximum possible output without
overshoots and it should not change with input frequency in given range. A good control system
should be having fairly large bandwidth.
6) Speed: A system should have good speed of response. This means output of the system should
approach to its desired value as quickly as possible. This is measured in terms of its rise time and
settling time. System should settle down to its final value as quickly as possible.
7) Oscillations: The good control system should exhibit suitable damping i.e. the controlled
output should follow the changes in the reference input without unduly large oscillations or
overshoots.
In general, a good control system should be (i) accurate, (ii) reliable, (iii) stable, (iv) fast
acting, (v) insensitive to parameter variations, (vi) insensitive to disturbance inputs, but (vii)
sensitive to changes input.

10.1 Types of control systems

Some of the types of control systems are
(i) Time invariant – Time varying systems; (ii) Linear – Nonlinear systems; (iii) Continuous time
(Analog) – Discrete time (Sampled data – Discrete – Digital systems); (iv) Deterministic –
Stochastic systems; (v) Lumped parameter – distributed parameter systems;(vi) Single input –
single output (SISO) and Multi input – multi output (MIMO) systems; (vii) Optimal control
systems; (viii) Adaptive system; (ix) stabilizer; (x) regulator; (xi) servo mechanism; (xii) causal
(cause – effect) system; (xiii) non – causal (anticipatory) system; etc.

10.1.1 Time Invariant (TI) – Time varying system:

Mathematical models of most physical systems are described by differential equations. A
mathematical model is time invariant if the differential equations describing it has coefficients
which are constants. If the various coefficients describing differential equations are constants the
model is time invariant. In the time invariant system only independent variable is the time.
On the other hand if the coefficients are functions of time then the system described by the model
is linear time varying. A typical example is a rocket in flight where in the fuel is consumed thus
affecting the mass and inertia properties.
12 | P a g e
10.1.2 Linear and Nonlinear system:
The mathematical model of a physical system is linear if it obeys the principle of superposition
and homogeneity. Output – input will be exhibiting a straight line relationship over the range of
interest, (e.g. Y = m X, with usual notations). Laplace transform and Z transform tools can be
applied to analyse these systems.
A nonlinear is one does not obey the principle of superposition, i.e. its response will be highly
sensitive to the input amplitude. The stability of a nonlinear system is very much dependent on the
input and the initial state. A nonlinear system may exhibit limit cycle oscillations which are self-
sustained oscillations which are not seen in linear systems.
10.1.3 Continuous time data – Sampled time data Control System:
A continuous data system is one in which the signal at various parts of the system are all functions
of the continuous time variable t. Sampled-data and digital-data control systems differ from the
continuous data systems in that the signal in one or more sections of the system is in the form of
either a pulse train or a numerical code. Usually, sampled-data systems refer to a more general
class of systems whose signals are in the form of pulsed data, whereas the term digital control
systems implies the use of a digital computer or digital sensing element in a system. In this text,
the term discrete-data control systems is used to describe both types of systems.
In general, a discrete-data system receives data or information only intermittently at some specific
instants of time. For instance, the error signal in a control system may be supplied only
intermittently in the form of pulses, in which case the control system receives no information about
the error signal during the periods between two consecutive pulses. Figure l2 illustrates how a
sampled-data control system operates.

Fig 12 Block diagram of a sampled – data control system

A continuous input signal r(t) is applied to the system. The continuous error signal e(t) is sampled
by a sampling device, the sampler, and the output of the sampling device is a sequence of pulses.
Usually the sampler has a uniform sampling rate. However, in general, the sampling schemes may
take any form. Some of the sampling schemes may be periodic, cyclic, multi-rate, skip-rate,
random, and pulse-width modulated. The most common variations are single-rate and multi-rate
samplings.
The output of a sampler contains a train of pulses; the amplitude of each pulse follows the
amplitude of the input time function during the pulse width. However, the exact analysis of
sampled-data systems with finite pulse widths is quite complex. Usually, the sampler is replaced
by an ‘ideal sampler’ whose output contains a train of impulses. If the pulse width of the sampler
output is very small compared to the dominant time constant of the continuous part of the system
and to the sampling period, the pulse train of finite pulse width can be approximated by an impulse
train. Fig 13 illustrates the sampled output from a sampling device.

13 | P a g e
 Fig 13 Input signal e(t) and sampled signal e*(t)

A digital control system is shown in block diagram form in Fig. 14. The appearance of digital
signals (such as binary numbers) in part of the system requires the use of digital-to-analogue as
well as analogue-to-digital converters.

Fig 14 A typical digital control system

10.1.4 Deterministic and Stochastic Control Systems:

A control system is said to be deterministic when its response to input as well as behaviour to
external disturbances is predictable and repeatable. Otherwise it is called Stochastic Control
System.

10.1.5 Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Control System:

Control systems whose parameters are distributed come under distributed parameter system. A
common example is that of a transmission line, where the resistance, inductance and capacitance
vary with length as one moves along the line. These parameters may be assumed as lumped at
certain points and solved or one can obtain exact solutions by following rigorous methods. Lumped
control systems are described by ordinary differential equations and distributed control systems by
partial differential equations.

Servomechanism is a power amplifying feedback control System in which the controlled

variable is mechanical position or it's time derivatives, such as velocity, acceleration.

14 | P a g e
 Fig 15 Position control system
Few other examples of servomechanisms are:
1) Power steering apparatus for an automobile.
2) Machine tool position control.
3) Missile launchers.
4) Roll stabilization of ships.

Temperature Control system.

Figure 19 below shows a schematic diagram of temperature control of an electric furnace. The
temperature in the electric furnace is measured by a thermometer, which is an analog device. The
analog temperature is converted to a digital temperature by an A/D converter. The digital
temperature is fed to a controller through an interface. This digital temperature is compared with
the programmed input temperature, and if there is any discrepancy (error), the controller sends out
a signal to the heater, through an interface, amplifier, and relay, to bring the furnace temperature
to a desired value.

Fig 19 Temperature Control system of a furnace.

15 | P a g e
Consider the temperature control of the passenger compartment of a car. The desired temperature
(converted to a voltage) is the input to the controller. The actual temperature of the passenger
compartment must be converted to a voltage through a sensor and fed back to the controller for
comparison with the input. Figure 20 below is a functional block diagram of temperature control
of the passenger compartment of a car. Note that the ambient temperature and radiation heat
transfer from the sun, which are not constant while the car is driven, act as disturbances.
The temperature of the passenger compartment differs considerably depending on the place where
it is measured. Instead of using multiple sensors for temperature measurement and averaging the
measured values, it is economical to install a small suction blower at the place where passengers
normally sense the temperature. The temperature of the air from the suction blower is an indication
of the passenger compartment temperature and is considered the output of the system. The
controller receives the input signal, output signal, and signals from sensors from disturbance
sources. The controller sends out an optimal control signal to the air conditioner or heater to control
the amount of cooling air or warm air so that the passenger compartment temperature is about the
desired temperature.

Fig 20 Temperature control of passenger compartment of a car.

(Modern Control Engineering, Ogata, 4th Edn.)

Speed Control System:

The basic principle of a Watt's speed governor (centrifugal governor) for an engine is illustrated
in the schematic diagram of Figure 2l.The amount of fuel admitted to the engine is adjusted
according to the difference between the desired and the actual engine speeds.

16 | P a g e
 Fig 21 Speed control system.
In this speed control system, the plant (controlled system) is the engine and the controlled variable
is the speed of the engine. The difference between the desired speed and the actual speed is the
error signal. The control signal (the amount of fuel) to be applied to the plant (engine) is the
actuating signal. The external input to disturb the controlled variable is the disturbance. An
unexpected change in the load is a disturbance.

The sequence of actions may be stated as follows: The speed governor is adjusted such that, at the
desired speed, no pressured oil will flow into either side of the power cylinder. If the actual speed
drops below the desired value due to disturbance, then the decrease in the centrifugal force of the
speed governor causes the control valve to move downward, supplying more fuel, and the speed
of the engine increases until the desired value is reached. On the other hand, if the speed of the
engine increases above the desired value, then the increase in the centrifugal force of the governor
causes the control valve to move upward. This decreases the supply of fuel, and the speed of the
engine decreases until the desired value is reached.

Review of complex variables and Laplace transforms:

The Laplace transform method is an operational method that can be used advantageously for
solving linear differential equations. By use of Laplace transforms, we can convert many common
functions, such as sinusoidal functions, damped sinusoidal functions, and exponential functions,
into algebraic functions of a complex variable s. Operations such as differentiation and integration
can be replaced by algebraic operations in the complex plane. Thus, a linear differential equation
can be transformed into an algebraic equation in a complex variable s. If the algebraic equation in
s is solved for the dependent variable, then the solution of the differential equation (the inverse
Laplace transform of the dependent variable) may be found by use of a Laplace transform table or
by use of the partial-fraction expansion technique.
An advantage of the Laplace transform method is that it allows the use of graphical techniques for
predicting the system performance without actually solving system differential equations. Another
advantage of the Laplace transform method is that, when we solve the differential equation, both
the transient component and steady-state component of the solution can be obtained
simultaneously.

17 | P a g e
Complex Variable: A complex number has a real part and an imaginary part, both of which are
constant. If the real part and/or imaginary part are variables, a complex quantity is called a complex
variable. In the Laplace transformation we use the notation s as a complex variable; that is,
s = σ + jω
where σ is the real part and ω is the imaginary part.
Complex Function: A complex function G(s), a function of s, has a real part and an imaginary
part or
G(s) = Gx + jGy
where Gx and Gy, are real quantities.
The magnitude of G(s) is 𝑮𝟐𝒙 + 𝑮𝟐𝒚 , and the angle θ of G(s) is tan-1 (Gy / Gx)
The angle is measured counterclockwise from the positive real axis.
The complex conjugate of G(s) is 𝑮 (𝒔) = Gx - jGy
Complex functions commonly encountered in linear control systems analysis are single-valued
functions of s and are uniquely determined for a given value of s.
A complex function G(s) is said to be analytic in a region if G(s) and all its derivatives exist in that
region.
The derivative of an analytic function can be obtained simply by differentiating G(s) with respect
to s.
Points in the s plane at which the function G(s) is analytic are called ordinary points, while points
in the s plane at which the function G(s) is not analytic are called singular points. Singular points
at which the function G(s) or its derivatives approach infinity are called poles. Singular points at
which the function G(s) equals zero are called zeros.

Zeros and Poles: Consider the complex function

G(s) has zeros at s = -2, s = -10, simple poles at s = 0, s = -1, s = -5, and a double pole (multiple
pole of order 2) at s = -15.

Observations:
If poles are located on the left half of the s – plane, whether real or complex conjugate the system
will be stable, i.e. the response will attain a steady state value, in an aperiodic manner or in an
oscillatory manner.
If poles are located on the imaginary axis, with zero real part and complex conjugate the system
will be marginally stable, i.e. the response will result in sustained oscillations.
If both real part and imaginary parts are zero, i.e. s = 0, the system will exhibit step kind of response
and multiple pole at the origin will result in unstable response.

18 | P a g e
If poles are located on the right half of the s – plane, whether real or complex conjugate the system
will be unstable, i.e. the response will steadily grow in an aperiodic manner or in an oscillatory
manner.

LAPIACE TRANSFORMATION
Let us define
f (t) = a function of time t such that f (t) = 0 for t < 0
s = a complex variable

= an operational symbol indicating that the quantity that it prefixes is to be

transformed by the Laplace integral ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
F(s) = Laplace transform of f (t)

The reverse process of finding the time function f (t) from the Laplace transform F(s) is called the
inverse Laplace transformation. The notation for the inverse Laplace transformation is L -1, and the
inverse Laplace transform can be found from F(s) by the following inversion integral:
The time function f (t) is always assumed to be zero for negative time; that is, f (t) = 0, for t < 0.
The Laplace transform of a function f (t) exists if the Laplace integral converges, and it is assumed
that the L T exists for the control system functions under consideration.

The Laplace transform of any Laplace transformable function f (t) can be found by multiplying
f (t) by e-st and then integrating the product from t = 0 to t = ∞. Once we know the method of
obtaining the Laplace transform, however, it is not necessary to derive the Laplace transform of
f(t) each time. Laplace transform tables can conveniently be used to find the transform of a given
function f (t). Table listed below shows Laplace transforms of time functions that will frequently
appear in linear control systems analysis.

19 | P a g e
Laplace transform pairs table

20 | P a g e
Laplace transform theorems: Some theorems which are commonly encountered in control
system analysis are:

Real Differentiation Theorem:

The Laplace transform of the derivative of a function f (t) is given by

where f (0) is the initial value of f (t) evaluated at t = 0. [Here we assumed f (0-) = f (0+) = f(0)]
Similarly,

21 | P a g e
and in general,

Note that, in order for Laplace transforms of derivatives of f(t) to exist, d nf (t)/ dtn (n = 1,2,3,. . .)
must be Laplace transformable.
Final-Value Theorem. The final-value theorem relates the steady-state behavior of f (t) to the
behavior of sF(s) in the neighborhood of s = 0. This theorem, however, applies if and only if
lim f (t) exists as t →∞ [which means that f (t) settles down to a definite value for t →∞]

Inverse Laplace transformation

As noted earlier, the inverse Laplace transform can be obtained by use of the inversion integral.
However, the inversion integral is complicated and, therefore, its use is not recommended for
finding inverse Laplace transforms of commonly encountered functions in control engineering. A
convenient method for obtaining inverse Laplace transforms is to use a table of Laplace transforms.
In this case, the Laplace transform must be in a form immediately recognizable in such a table.
Quite often the function in question may not appear in tables of Laplace transforms available to
the engineer. If a particular transform F(s) cannot be found in a table, then we may expand it into
partial fractions and write F(s) in terms of simple functions of s for which the inverse Laplace
transforms are already known.
Note that these simpler methods for finding inverse Laplace transforms are based on the fact that
the unique correspondence of a time function and its inverse Laplace transform holds for any
continuous time function.

22 | P a g e
Example problem: (1)

23 | P a g e
Example problem: (2)

Example problem: (3)

24 | P a g e
25 | P a g e
For complicated functions with denominators involving higher-order polynomials, partial-
fraction expansion may be quite time consuming. In such a case, use of MATLAB is
recommended.

s – plane representation of roots of system characteristic equation:

The characteristic equation in polynomial form is expressed as follows:
a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + ….+an-1 s + an = 0.
There will be n roots having only real part or complex conjugate pairs or both.
While plotting the roots on the complex plane the point to be noted is that the graduation along X
– axis and Y – axis should be equal.
The roots are plotted on the s – plane which is a complex plane.
Typically considering the points
s1 = + jω1 s2 = -jω1
s3 = -σ1 + jω2 s4 = -σ1 – jω2 s7 = -σ3 s8 = -σ4
s5 = +σ2 + jω s6 = +σ2 - jω
Typical plot of the following points on the s- plane is shown in the figure below:

26 | P a g e
This topic will be addressed in detail in the Unit 3 on Root locus analysis.

Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems

To study and analyze the behavior of a system, it is necessary to have some type of equivalent
representation of the system. Such representation can be obtained from the mathematical equations
governing the behavior of the system. Since control systems under study are dynamic in nature,
the response of which are evolving with time, most of such mathematical equations are differential
equations and the system may be mechanical, electrical, thermal, hydraulic, etc.
Thus, the set of mathematical equations describing the dynamic behavior of a system is called
mathematical model of the system. (Algebraic, ODE, PDE, Difference Equation)
In science, which is applicable in engineering as well, a model is a representation of an idea, an
object or even a process or a system that is used to describe and explain phenomena that cannot
be experienced directly. The model formulation process clarifies assumptions, variables, and
parameters. The behavior of precise mathematical models can be analyzed using mathematical
methods and computer simulations. Modeling is an experimental tool for testing theories and
assessing quantitative assumptions.

Mechanical Systems
Mechanical Systems are of two types:
(1) Translational
(2) Rotational
In translational motion, the motion of the body is along a straight line or curved path. In rotational
motion, the motion of the body is that it rotates about its own axis.

Mechanics of Translational Motion:

There are three elements here:
(i) Mass
(ii) Spring and (iii) Damper.
27 | P a g e
The relation is F  displacement,
F = K x = K (x1 - x2) where K is the spring constant
When the force is applied at end A, it gets a displacement x 1 and the end B gets a displacement x 2,
when both ends are free to move, and the force is proportional to the net displacement (x 1 - x2).
In Laplace transformed domain: F(s) = K (X1(s) – X2(s))
If force is applied at B end, the relation is F = K (x 2 – x1)

28 | P a g e
29 | P a g e
30 | P a g e
Modeling of Electrical Systems:
Similar to the three basic elements associated with mechanical systems, there are three basic
elements in electrical systems as well and they are:
(1) Resistor
(2) Inductor
(3) Capacitor.
The input and output equations are well known and they are resented in the table 4 below:

31 | P a g e
Force - Voltage (F – V) Analogy
Here force is analogous to voltage (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law - KVL is used)
By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law for Fig.4

Fig 4 R - L – C in series
v = v 1 + v2 + v3
t
di 1
V (t )  Ri  L   idt
dt C 0

32 | P a g e
 dq
Putting i  and since current is rate of change of quantity of electric charge, where q is the
dt
quantity of charge, we get
d 2q dq 1
V (t )  L 2
R  q (3)
dt dt C
Laplace transform with zero initial conditions gives
1
V ( s )  s 2 LQ ( s )  sRQ ( s )  Q ( s ) (4)
C
Comparing with a mechanical translational system,
d 2x dx
FM 2
 B  Kx Ref to Eq (1)
dt dt
Laplace transform with zero initial conditions gives
F ( s )  s 2 MX ( s )  sBX ( s )  KX ( s ) (5)
Comparing equations (1) & (3) or (5) & (4), we get the analogous quantities as
1
F → V; M → L; B → R; K → ; x → q
C
Similarly, for rotational system
d 2 d
TJ 2
B  K (2)
dt dt
Laplace transform with zero initial conditions gives
T ( s )  s 2 J( s )  sB( s )  K( s ) (6)
Comparing equations (2) & (3) or (6) & (4), we get analogous quantities as
1
T → V; J → L; B → R; K → ; θ → q
C
The F – V analogous quantities are tabulated in the Table 5 below:

Mechanical Translational System Electrical (F – V) Mechanical Rotational system

Force F Voltage V Torque T

Mass M Inductance L Inertia J

Damper B Resistance R Damper B

Spring K 1 Spring K
Elasticity D =
C

Displacement x Charge q Angular displacement θ

Velocity v Current i Angular velocity ω

Force – Voltage & Torque – Voltage relationships

33 | P a g e
Force – Current (F – I) Analogy
In this representation force is analogous to current (Kirchhoff’s Current Law - KCL is used)

Fig 6 R – L – C in parallel
i = i1 + i2 + i3 (7a)
V 1 dV
i   Vdt  C (7b)
R L dt
d
Substituting V = where ψ is flux linkage (i.e. rate of change of electro-magnetic field) in (7b)
dt
and rearranging, we get
1 d 1 d 2
i   C 2 (8)
R dt L dt
Laplace transform of equation (8) with zero initial conditions, gives
1 1
I ( s )  s 2 C ( s )  s ( s )   ( s ) (9)
R L
Comparing equations (1) & (8) or (5) & (9), we get the F – I analogous quantities as
1 1
F → I; M → C; B → ;K→ ;X→ψ
R L
Similarly, for rotational system, by comparing equations (2) and (8) or (6) and (9), the T – I
analogous quantities pertaining to rotational system are obtained as
1 1
T → I; J → C; B → ;K→ ;  →ψ
R L
Force – Current & Torque – Current relationships
Mechanical Translational System Electrical (F – I) Mechanical Rotational system
Force F Current i Torque T
Mass M Capacitance C Inertia J
Damper B 1 Damper B
Conductance
R

34 | P a g e
 Spring K 1 Spring K
Reciprocal of inductance =
L
Displacement x Flux linkage ψ Angular displacement θ
Velocity v Voltage V Angular velocity ω

Transfer Function
Definition
Mathematically it is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform (for definition and transform pairs
of Laplace Transform refer to appropriate standard Mathematics text books) of output (response)
of the system to the Laplace transform of input (excitation or driving function), under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Symbolically system can be represented as shown in the Fig. 7(a). While the transfer function of
system can be shown as in the Fig 7(b).

r(t) c(t) R (s) C (s)

System G (s)

(a) (b)

Fig 7 Representation of system in time domain and in transformed domain

C (s)
Transfer function of this system is where C(s) is Laplace transform of c(t) and R(s) Laplace
R( s )
transform of r(t). (Refer Table 9 for a few Laplace Transform pairs)
If T(s) is the transfer function of the system then,

Laplace transform of output

C(s)
G(s) = =
Laplace transform of input R(s)

Advantages and Features of Transfer Function

i) It gives mathematical models of all system components and hence of the overall system.
Individual analysis of various components is also possible by the transfer function approach.
ii) As it uses a Laplace transform approach, it converts time domain equations to algebraic
equations.
iii) It gives an operational method of expressing equations which relate output to input.
iv) The transfer function is expressed only as a function of the complex variable 's'. It is not a
function of the real variable, time or any other variable used as the independent variable.

35 | P a g e
v) It is the property and characteristics of the system itself. Its value is dependent on the
parameters of the system and independent of the values of the inputs. It helps in calculating
the output for any type of input applied to the system.
vi) Once transfer function is known, output response for any type of reference input can be
calculated.
vii) It helps in determining the important information about the system i.e. poles, zeros,
characteristic equation etc.
viii) It helps in the stability analysis of the system.
ix) The system differential equation can be easily obtained by replacing variable 's' by d/dt.
x) Finding inverse, the required variable can be easily expressed in the time domain. This is easier
than to analyze the entire system in the time domain.

Disadvantages (Limitations)
The few limitations of the transfer function approach called approach are,
i) Only applicable to linear time invariant systems.
ii) It does not provide any information concerning the physical structure system. From transfer
function, physical nature of the system whether electrical, mechanical, thermal or hydraulic,
cannot be judged.
iii) Effects arising due to initial conditions are totally neglected. Hence initial conditions lose their
importance.

Example: Obtain the transfer functions X1(s) / U(s) and X2(s) / U(s) of the mechanical system
shown in the figure below:

The equations of motion, by inspection, for the system shown in Figure 3–4 are:

Grouping and simplifying, we obtain

Taking the Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain:

36 | P a g e
Solving Equation (3–6) for and substituting it into Equation (3–5) and simplifying, we get

from which we obtain

From Equations (3–6) and (3–7) we have

Equations (3–7) and (3–8) are the functions X 1(s) / U(s) and X2(s) / U(s) respectively.

Electrical system models

Fig 29 L – R – C circuit

The circuit elements are: R – resistance (ohm); L – inductance (henry) and C – capacitance (farad).
Vi are Vo are input and output voltages in volts respectively
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the system, we obtain the following equations:
di 1
dt C 
Ri  L  idt  Vi

1
C
idt  Vo

Taking LT with zero initial conditions

1
RI ( s)  LsI ( s)  I ( s)  Ei ( s)
sC
1
I (s)  Eo ( s)
sC
37 | P a g e
The transfer function, after simplification, is obtained as
Eo ( s) 1

Ei ( s) LCs  RCs  1
2

Problem:

Fig 30
1
C1 
R1i1  (i1  i2 )dt  Vi

1 1
C1  (i2  i1 )dt  R2 i2 
C2 
i2 dt  0 (1, 2, 3)

1
C2 
i 2 dt  Vo

Taking LT with zero initial conditions, we get

1
R1 I 1 ( s )  ( I 1 ( s )  I 2 ( s ))  E i ( s )
C1 s
1 1
( I 2 ( s )  I 1 ( s ))  R2 I 2 ( s )  I 2 ( s)  0 (4,5,6)
C1 s C2 s
1
I 2 ( s)  E o ( s)
C2 s
Substituting for I1(s) from (4) in (5) and eliminating I2(s) and simplifying we get the transfer
function as
Eo (s) 1

Ei ( s) ( R1C1 s  1)( R2 C 2 s  1)  R1C 2 s
1
i.e 
R1C1 R 2 C 2 s  ( R1C1  R 2 C 2  R1C 2 ) s  1
2

38 | P a g e
Problem: Determine the transfer function relation Vo(s) to Vi(s) for the network shown in the fig
below

Fig 31
The governing differential equations are:
1
C1 
i1 dt  R1 (i1  i 2 )  Vi (t )

1
C2 
R1 (i 2  i1 )  i2 dt  R2 i 2  0 (1,2,3)

R2 i 2  Vo (t )
Laplace transforming with zero initial conditions, we get
1
I 1 ( s )  R1 ( I 1 ( s )  I 2 ( s ))  Vi ( s )
C1 s
1
R1 ( I 2 ( s )  I 1 ( s ))  I 2 ( s )  R2 I 2 ( s )  0 (4,5,6)
C2 s
R 2 I 2 ( s )  Vo ( s )
From equation (5)
1 1
I 1 ( s)  (  R 2  R1 ) I 2 ( s ) (7)
R1 C 2 s
Substituting for I1(s) from (5) into (4) and rearranging, we get
1 1 1
[{(  R1 ) (  R2  R1 )}  R1 ]I 2 ( s )  Vi ( s ) (8)
C1 s R1 C 2 s
Eliminating I2(s) from (6) and (8) and rearranging the resulting equation, we get the TF as
Vo ( s) R1 R2 C1C 2 s 2
 (9)
V1 ( s) R1C1 R2 C 2 s 2  ( R1C1  R2 C 2  R1C 2 ) s  1

39 | P a g e
Exercise: Find the TF (V0(s) / Vi(s)) with numerical values if R1 = R2 = 1 MΩ and C1 = 1 μ F C2
=0.5 μ F. Find the T F of electrical circuit shown below

Fig 32

Modelling of Thermal Systems

Typically, we will be dealing with liquid heating system in our thermal system modeling. Such a
system is shown in the following figure.

Fig 39
Electric heating element is provided in the tank to heat the water. The tank is insulated to reduce
heat flow to the surroundings.
The necessary simplifying assumptions are:
1) There is no heat storage in the insulation.
2) All the water in the tank is perfectly mixed and hence at a uniform temperature
θi = Inlet water temperature in 0C
θo = Outlet water temperature in 0C.
θ = Surrounding temperature (Reference temp)
q = Rate of heat flow from heating element in J/ sec
qi = Rate of heat flow to the water
qt = Rate of heat flow through tank insulation.
C = Thermal capacity in J / 0C = Thermal capacitance is the amount of heat energy stored
in a system per unit degree increase in temperature
R = Thermal Resistance of insulation

40 | P a g e
 = Difference in temperature / Difference in heat flow rate
So rate of heat flow for the water in tank is
d 0
qi  C (1)
dt
The rate of heat flow from the water to the surrounding atmosphere through insulation is,

 
qt  0
(2)
R
By the heat transfer principles,
q = q i + qt (3)
Substituting equations (1) and (2) in (3), we get
d 0  0  
qC  (4)
dt R

Taking the ambient temperature condition (θ) as reference, the term θ/R can be neglected from the
equation (4). Then, equation (4) is obtained as
d 0  0
qC  (5)
dt R
Taking Laplace transform, with zero initial conditions
1
Q( s)  (Cs  ) 0 ( s) (6)
R
Hence the transfer function is
 0 ( s) R
 (7)
Q(s) RCs  1
Problem: A simple gas filled thermometer has a thermal conductance of B is filled with a gas
whose thermal capacitance is C. Obtain the TF relating the temperature of the gas in the
thermometer to the temperature of the medium in which the thermometer is inserted. (Refer the
fig shown below). Neglect the capillary effect of the thermometer tube.

Fig 40
Let x = deviation of temperature of the medium
41 | P a g e
 y = deviation of temperature of the gas inside the thermometer
Rate of heat supplied by the medium to the thermometer = Heat energy gained by the gas inside
the thermometer
KA
i.e. B (x-y) dt = C dy { q  (T 1T2 )  B(T 1T2 )  B( x  y )}
L
C dy
 ( x  y) 
B dt
dy 1
i.e.x  RC  y  R 
dt B
Taking LT with zero initial conditions
X ( s )  ( RCs  1)Y ( s )
Y (s) 1

X ( s) RCs  1

Reference Laplace Transform Pairs

S. No Function f(t) Laplace Transform

1 Unit impulse δ(t) 1

Unit step 1(t) 1

2
s
t 1
3 s2
e-at 1
4
(s  a)
t e-at 1
5
( s  a) 2
Sin ωt 
6
s 2
2

Cos ωt s
7
s 2
2

1 1
8 (1  e  at )
a s( s  a)
1 1
9 (e  at  e bt )
(b  a ) ( s  a )( s  b)

42 | P a g e
 e  at sin t 
10
( s  a) 2   2

e  at cost (s  a)
11
( s  a) 2   2
d s F(s) (with zero initial
12 f (t ) condition)
dt
d2 s2 F(s)
13 f (t )
dt 2

14  f (t )dt F ( s)
s
15 e-at f(t) F(s+a)

Reference books:
1. Ogata, K., Modern Control Engineering, 4th edn., Prentice Hall, 1991.
2. Nagrath & M Gopal, Modern Control Engineering, New Ages International.
3. B.C. Kuo, Automatic Control System, 6th ed., Prentice Hall, 1993.

43 | P a g e