The Zimbabwean States

BY SYDNEY NJABULO SITHOLE…Diplo in Edu.
(University of Zimbabwe)
THE ZIMBABWEAN STATES: GREAT ZIMBABWE, MUTAPA

STATE, ROZVI STATE, NDEBELE STATE (2018)
1|Page created by Sydney Njabulo Sithole +263775546554

THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
Introduction and origins of the Great Zimbabwe State.
African Perspective about the origins of Great Zimbabwe State
 After the decline of the Mapungubwe state, Great Zimbabwe state emerged and was
situated near modern town of Masvingo.
 The state is attributed to the Gumunye people.
 Archaeologists assume that by A.D 1250 the Gumunye people were increasingly getting
richer/wealthier and powerful due to the growth of their cattle wealth, their control of
mining, especially gold and copper on the Zimbabwean plateau and the long distance
trade between the Zimbabwean plateau and the East African Coast.
 Ivory was found in abundance in the general areas of the Limpopo valley but later the
discovery of gold and copper on the Zimbabwean plateau took over.
 To signify their growing wealth, prestige and power the Gumunye people started
constructing stone structures of the Great Zimbabwe site. Great Zimbabwe Site is dated
A.D 1250
 It flourished for a little over 300 years during which time the Great stone structure were
built.
 This state is symbollised by the magnificent stone structures.
 The site is the largest out of over a hundred similar related stone structures spread
throughout the Zimbabwean plateau and the surrounding areas.
 By A.D 1300, Great Zimbabwe had grown into a major town and its civilization was
beginning to spread onto the crest of the Zimbabwean plateau and surrounding areas.
 The size of the Great Zimbabwe and numerous exotic and local luxurious and symbolic
artefacts found at the site all testify that the site was a centre of great political power
and prestige in South Africa during its hey days.
The following were some of the artefacts uncovered at Great Zimbabwe
A) Artefacts the got from External / Foreign trade
1. 14th century glazed Persian bowl
2. Chines celadon dishes
3. shreds of Chines stoneware vessels
4. glazed Persian bowl
5. fragment of engraved and painted wear east glass
6. a piece of coral
7. an iron spoon
8. an iron lamp holder
9. with a copper suspension chain
10. a copper box

11. two copper finger rings
12. two small bronze bells and several tins of thousands of glass beads
13. Some brass – wire and quantity of cowries shells.
B) Local and sub – regional artifacts also uncovered from Great Zimbabwe.
1. Copper ingots from Zambia
2. Copper objects/ brass from Mhangura (in Northern Zimbabwe)
3. Gold items from Western and Northern Zimbabwe.
4. Curved soapstone birds now the national icon known as the Zimbabwean bird.
The Zimbabwe soft stone bird
The racial prejudice on the origins of the Great Zimbabwe/ European view
 According to writer, G Connar,”Great Zimbabwe is one of the best known and best one
of the ill-used of the archaeological sites in Africa. Its ill-usage has had both intellectual
and physical dimensions and started at the moment if first became known to the
Europeans”
 Carl Mauch, a German geologist was the 1st European who had visited Great Zimbabwe
national monument in 3 September 1871.
 Mauch later returned to Europe and published his mythical views about the
Zimbabwean site. He noted “I doth think im far from wrong, if I suppose that the ruin on
the hill is a copy of Solomon’s temple on Mount Moria and the building in the plains a
copy of the place where the Queen of Sheba lived during his visit to Solomon”
 Therefore Mauch’s publication generated a lot of European interests in The Great
Zimbabwe National monument and related stone structure.

 The period of 1871 to 1905 was dominated by European adventures, fortune and glory
seekers i.e. people not qualified neither to make investigations nor comments about
archaeological findings.
 Some attributed the origins of the Great Zimbabwe to Sabaeans from Yemen while
others to the Dravidian Indians etc. all whom were not Africans.
 In 1891, Theodore Bent an English antiquarian visited Great Zimbabwe and evaluated
and concluded that it originated from the Middle East about 300 years.
 Cecil John Rhodes adventurer Captain Sir John Willongby, followed Blent in 1893. His
excavations was not valueless but also destructive to the stone structure.
 Three years later, a company was set up to look for gold in these stone structures. This
company did extensive damage to the Great Zimbabwe stone structures before Cecil
john Rhodes ordered them to stop.
 In 1902, Richard Hall was appointed as the keeper of the Great Zimbabwe by the B.S.A.C
and he was tasked to clean up the site following an increase in number of tourists
visited the place. However his work was both destructive and misleading in particular he
unprofessionally removed large-scale deposits from the site.
 He further made a publication about the site which further strengthened the already
popular prejudicial view about the origins of the site.
 In 1905, an archaeologist Dr David Randal Maclver was appointed by the British
Association for the advancement of science to study the Great Zimbabwe stone
structure.
 Randall Maclver discovered that the stone walling was associated with the indigenous
cultural remains. He also uncovered exotic goods like beads, Chinese remains etc.
 Randall maclver concluded that “Great Zimbabwe was built by people practicing a
typical African culture and that judging from the imports the buildings might be dated
about 14th century or later”
 Randal Maclver findings proved that after all the indigenous people of Zimbabwe
plateau were not “barbaric” but descendants of a unique and wonderful African civilian
if its age.
 After Maclver came two architects Masoy in 1911 and Schfield in the 1920s concluded
that the Great Zimbabwe originated from a local civilization, just as Randal Maclver had
started.
 Unsatisfied by Randal Maclver, Masoy and Schfield the British Association for the
Advancement of Science once again sent Gertrude Caton Thompson, she agreed with
Randal MacIver and she also discovered that the stone wall were associated with dagga
huts and that the two were part and parcel of the building traditional of the indigenous
people.
 In 1941, H.A Wioschoff also carried out excavation at Great Zimbabwe and related sites
and also studied the Zimbabwean culture, published his work. His findings led him to

conclude that stone buildings were much more recent than suggested by Maclver and
Caton Thompson, with some of the stone structures being of 18 th and 19th century.
 In 1958, R. K Robinson and Rogers Summers also concluded that the stone wall building
was of the indigenous people.
The Great Zimbabwe site, located in Masvingo, Zimbabwe

Other Madzimbabwes found in Zimbabwe
1. Khame
2. Ruanga
3. Chipadze
4. Tsindi
5. Naletale
6. Nhunguza
7. Manekweni

Factors that led to the of the Great Zimbabwe state
1. Agriculture and environmental factors.
 It is located where there is red and black soils suitable for agriculture.
 The area was also free from malaria and tsetse flies allowing livestock keeping to be
widely practiced.
 Agricultural products like sorgurm, rapoko and millet sustained the diet of the people
leading to the rise in population.
2. Livestock rearing
 Livestock enabled ruling class to get richer.

 The greater wealth from livestock keeping and gold mining enabled them to marryu
many more wives and raise many children
3. Religion
 Chigwagu, Rusvingo and Dzauranda spirit mediums and wise counsel respectively are
regarded as the founders of the “Dzimbabwe” confederation around 100 A.D
 Because of the fear of succession, the King rarely followed policies unaccepted to the
religion of the nation.
4. Trade
 They conducted foreign trade at Sofala valley in Mozambique and local trade in the
region.
 They controlled the long distance trade between Zimbabwe plateau and the East Africa
Coast.
 They traded with ivory, gold, copper, animal skins.
 This led to the growing wealth of the Shona, thereby started to construct the stone walls
to signify prestige.
5. Mining
 They mined gold, iron and tin

 Gold was used to trade
6. Development of iron technology
 Iron was smelted by black smiths and sharped them into various iron tools like hoes,
axes, knives etc. Axes were used to clear lands for permanent settlement and kraals,
whereas hoes were used for agricultural purposes.
7. Rich minerals from neighbours
 Copper ingots from Zambia

 Copper objects/ brass from Mhangura (in Northern Zimbabwe)
 Gold items from Western and Northern Zimbabwe.
8. Abundance of water supplies from Mutirikwi River
9. Strong Army
10. Availability of Granite rocks.
11. Emergency of ambitious leaders.
The purpose of the great enclosure (Imbahuru)/ Stone structures

1. As a trading centre
2. As a religious centre
3. As Mambo’s court
4. As an administrative centre
5. As a dwelling place for the nobles
6. As a symbol of power
7. As a fortress in times of war

The organization of the Great Zimbabwe state
The economic activities
1. Crop cultivation
 The Shona people cultivated crops like sorghum, millet rapoko, melons and beans.
 the crops were used for home consumption, trade, payment of tribute,
 crop cultivation was mainly conducted my women and children
2. Cattle keeping
 The people of the Great Zimbabwe kept cattle because there was good grazing land and
they also practiced Kuronzera system.
 Cattle were used for:
1. Tribute payment.
2. As a symbol of wealth
3. Used in the Kuronzera system.
4. Used as some source of food…milk and milk
5. Used for trade
6. Used in ritual ceremonies
7. Used to pay lobolla
8. Skins were used to make shileds, drums, mats.
9. Used to pull a plough during crop cultivation.
3. Mining
 The mined gold, tin and iron

 Copper they got it from Zambia and other parts of Zimbabwe
 Minerals were mainly used for trade and tribute payment
Gold mined at the Great Zimbabwe State
4. Trade
 Trade was divided into two forms that is internal and external trade
External trade or foreign trade
 They conducted foreign trade in the Sofala valley located modern Maputo, in
Mozambique with Swahili merchants, Portuguese merchants, Arabs, Persians, Indians,
Swahilis, Zambians
 They imported clothes, sea shells, china ware, ceramics, bangles, glass, spirits, mirrors,
iron gadgets and copper ingots from Zambia.
 They exported ivory, gold, copper, animal skins, cattle, etc.
The picture shows ivory

Internal trade or local trade.
 It is also referred to as barter exchange trade, where the Shona people exchanged goods
as that time there was no money to purchase anything. They exchanged a goat for millet,
gold for ivory etc.
5. Tribute payment
 This was a state revenue where the king collected tribute.

 It was also to show a sign of loyalty to the mambo, everyone was supposed to pay
tribute to the King.
 If a provincial chief failed to pay tribute it was seen as a sign if rebellion and military
action was taken immediately.
 They paid tribute in form of labour, wives, cattle, grains, gold, copper, ivory, animal
skins.
 Crops that were obtained through tribute payments were kept in the King’s granary and
consumed in times of starvation and droughts.
6. Hunting and gathering
 This was a division of labour between men and women.

 Men were hunters and they hunted animals like kudu, impala etc. for meat and they also
hunted big game like elephants for ivory and meat. Animals like leopards were hunted for
their skins
 Women were tasked with households activities like child bearing, cooking, fetching water,
cultivation and gathering.
 They gathered ants, honey, berries, etc.
7. Craft work
 It included basketry, weaving and pottery.

 Pottery found included Zhizo, Gokomore, Bambata,Maxton, Ziwa, Chinhoyi.
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Social activities of the Great Zimbabwe State
 The society at Great Zimbabwe was characterised by social classes namely the ruling
class that enjoyed a number of privileges and the commoner class that was burdened
with tribute.
 The king lived separate from the common people, he stayed in the Great Enclosure.
 Great Zimbabwe is said to have been inhabited by about ten thousand people.
 The Shona people at Great Zimbabwe were a religious people who worshipped Mwari.
 They also believed in the national spirits (mhondoro) and the ancestral spirits called
(vadzimu), which were worshipped through the spirit mediums called Masvikiro.
 Mhondoro and Mwari were consulted during the times of troubles such as wars and
shangwa (drought).
 The spirit mediums were important during the installation of the new Mambo. All the
religious ceremonies were presided over by the king.
 The Shona people at Great Zimbabwe usually curved soap stone birds during their spare
time. These soap stone birds were made as symbols of Shiri yaMwari and they also
symbolised religious beliefs and the importance of Mitupo.
 The Conical tower and the Eastern Enclosure were the areas believed to have been
associated with religious functions.
 Many cattle were killed to feed the people at traditional ceremonies. The Mambo could
lend his cattle to his subjects through the Kuronzera system.
 The karanga people at Great Zimbabwe were polygamists. Men could marry many wives
and have many children who would enhance agricultural productivity.
The traditional healer or Inyanga had a very important role in the religion and society of Great
Zimbabwe
Political activities of the Great Zimbabwe State.
 The king lived within the Great Stone Structure.
 He was the head of the state whose duties were to control over the allocation of grazing
land and presiding over religious and political activities.
 The King enjoyed a number of privileges such as access to hunting products, for example
skins and ivory.
 The king enjoyed monopoly over long distance trade and enjoyed peasant labour at his
court and in his field.
 The King was assisted by the Dare (a council of advisors) in carrying out his duties.
Members of the Dare were appointed on merit and could help the King in presiding over
court cases.
 There were village chiefs and provincial chiefs who were answerable to the Mambo.
 All the subjects and vassals paid tribute to the Mambo as a sign of loyalty and this tribute
was collected by the council of advisors.
 The ancestors of the Mambo were a unifying factor in the Great Zimbabwe State. They
were highly regarded and supported by all the people in the state.
 Able bodied men could be summoned in times of war to serve as soldiers and they could
retire to their homes after a military expedition.
 The spirit mediums were so important during the installation of the new Mambo. There
was no clear system of succession after the death of the Mambo and this weighed much
The decline of the Great Zimbabwe State

Political factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe
 Corruption and disunity among the elite
 Succession disputes
 Emergency of ambitious leaders
 External attacks from the Sotho-Tswana people
 The vastness of the Empire
Economic factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

 Exhaustion of soil
 Shortage of salt
 Overgrazing
 Decline in external trade
 Successive droughts
 Shortage of ivory
 Depletion of resources such as wood
Social factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

 Overpopulation
 Disunity
Ecological factors (ecosystem)

• There was shortage of firewood for fuel, timber for hut construction.
• there was shortage of grazing land for the large number of cattle owned by the
inhabitants
• Soil had lost its fertility
• There was shortage of natural resources (shortage of salt)
Shift and competition for trade

• There was trade competition from the people of Ingombe Illede who hade become
envious of the display of power and trade.
• Trade competition might have led to the scarcity of such valuable commodities such as
salt, gold, ivory, and copper resulting in the reduction of the kingdom’s source of
revenue.
• The exhaustion of the Gold deposits within Great Zimbabwe economic area, weakened
the ruling class access to wealth.
• Trade shifted from the Mutirikwe-Save-Limpopo-Sofala area to the Zambezi-Shire-Lake
Tanganyika triangle. 
Natural disasters and diseases

• There were droughts between the periods of 1420 and 1430.
• There was also locust plague
• There were diseases which destroyed cattle, locusts, and epidemic outbreak of human
diseases due to the inappropriate disposal of human waste.
• There were also ten consecutive droughts between 1465 and 1493 which were all
blamed on the King.
Succession disputes
• After the death of Munembiri Mudadi the kingdom plunged into a succession crisis
which was difficult to resolve.
• Moreover because of Mutapa Mudadi’s pride and unbecoming behaviours and
particularly his refusal to have a great wife, the spirit mediums encouraged rebellion
and migration from Great Zimbabwe, thus shifting the centre of gravity from Great
Zimbabwe to the Mazoe Valley.
• Succession disputes also forced Nyatsimba Mutota, a G.Z prince north to the Zambezi
valley and founded the Mutapa dynasty.
Incompetent leadership
• By 1480 the glory of the Great Zimbabwe had disappeared, hastened by the rebellions
and successions of Torwa and Changa, to be replaced by the Munhumutapa or Mutapa
Kingdom.
• During Munembiri Mudadi’s reign several ethnic groups crossed the Limpopo in an
attempt to distance themselves from Mudadi’s oppressive rule.
The Mutapa State
The Portrait that sows Gatsi Rusere, one of the Mutapa Rulers
Origins and introduction to the Mutapa state

 Most of the history of the Mutapa state was collected from the Portuguese documents.
 The founder of the Mutapa State was Nyatsimba Mutota, who was a Prince from the
Great Zimbabwe. Oral tradition says that he migrated North out of the Great Zimbabwe
in search of Salt (mainly salt was used as an umbrella term symbollised resources, as
resources were scarce in the Great Zimbabwe state).
 When he reached the Dande valley or Mouth Darwin, he discovered abundance of salt,
game, ivory, water, grazing land, trade, timber etc. he decided to establish his new Capital
there and called it the “Munhumutapa state”
 He conquered and absorbed the Tavara and Tonga people
 He shifted trade from the Sofala valley in Mozambique to Zambezi valley making his to
monopolize trade and making him stronger and wealth.
 Alliances to chief Dzivaguru, made him popular, leading to win the support by local
people.
 Trade led to the expansion of the state.
 His son and successor Matope extended territories east wards conquering independent
kingdoms of Barwe, Manica, Sofala, uteve, Madanda.
 Had direct control over North east corner of Mozambique.
 King of Uteve, Madanda and Chikanga paid tribute.
 Extended westwards as far as the Kalahari Desert.
Factors that led to the rise of the Mutapa state

Pull factors
1. Availability of gold and other minerals.’

2. The ability of Mutapa Mutota.
3. The role of the army
4. The presence of elephants for ivory
5. The role of religion
6. Cordial relations with the foreigners.
7. Availability of salt.
8. Availability of grazing land
9. Availability of fertile lands for agriculture
10. Availability of timber, water and firewood.
11. The power of external trade
Push factors.
1. Exhaustion of soil in Great Zimbabwe

2. Shortage of salt in Great Zimbabwe
3. Overgrazing
4. Over population
5. Succession disputes
6. Disunity
7. Depletion of resources such as wood.
Succession disputes
 According to a Chigwedera, he argues that the Mutapa was not an off spring of the Great
Zimbabwe but they existed side by side for some time before the Great Zimbabwe
collapsed. The Great Zimbabwe was actually at some time a capital of the Mutapa state.
 In 1415, a civil war broke out over succession for the position to be the King of the great
Zimbabwe. This civil war was between Nyatsimba Mutota supported by Chinguwo and
Torwa supported by changamire dombo
 Nyatsimba Mutota was defeated and moved to the Zambezi valley where he established
himself, while Torwa went to the Khami in the West, leaving the Great Zimbabwe to
collapse.
The power of external trade
 The Zambezi valley was an important trade route to the East Coast, especially after a new
trading post was established at Angoche north of the Zambezi.
 The Angoche were the Zambezi valley route became more important than the overland
trade route and one of the Kalanga lineages invaded and conquered the Tavara people in
Dande thereby establishing the Mutapa State.
 The tittle Mwenemutapa/ Munhumutapa/ Monomutapa/ Great Plunderer/ Lord of the
conquest is said to have conferred upon Mutapa by the Tavara of the Zambezi Valley
whom the Shonas had subjugated.
Organisation of the Mutapa state

Political organization.
Some leaders or rulers of the Mutapa State
1. Nyatsimba Mutota.
2. Matope
3. Nyahuma
4. Nyambo Kapararidze
5. Negomo Mapunzaguti
6. Mavhura
7. Mukombwe
8. Nyanyadzi
9. Nyakunembiri
 The king who held the title of the Muhnumutapa has absolute powers.
 The Munhumutapa had the powers to distribute land, commander in chief of the Army,
religious leader etc.
 The Mutapa Empire was governed through a system of vassalage divided among vassal
Lords (fumos) and chiefs.
 The fumos were provincial governors. These were appointed from the Mutapa relatives,
advisors, generals and favourities.
 The fumos were primarily territorial administrators responsible for the collection of
tribute, supplying labourers and warriors, maintaining law and order and administration
justice.
 They were customarily present at the Mutapa court (Dzimbabwe) during state
ceremonies and festivals.
 The Mutapa political administration was one with no stipulated salaries; the personnel
were rewarded in land grants, free salaries and royal favours.
 The Mutapas allowed some of its fumostos to take charge of long distance trade in their
areas and, as a result, they become wealthy and powerful.
 There were about 25 vassal lords in the Mutapa state. Some included Mungazi, Barwe,
Uteve, Manyika, Sedanda, Bocha, Chidima, and Mashawatu.
 Several government officials who attended Mutapa Court (Dzimbabwe) were the
treasurer, the military general, the governor of paramount, the chaplain, the great
musician.
 A few of the territorial administrators were descendants of the traditional chiefly lineages
of the indigenous Tonga and Tavara people who had been conquered by the Mutapa
dynasty. The Mutapa demanded allegiance, obedience and tribute from them.
 Succession of Chieftainship was hereditary, although the ruling Mutapa had to confirm
each of them.
 Old fires in the Chieftaincies were extinguished, and a new one were received from the
New Mutapa, in return the Mutapa protected them (chiefs) against both internal and
external attacks.
Other government officials in the Mutapa political structure
1. Chief confidant (mbokurume) - son in law who kept secrets of the King
2. CHIEF Doctor (Mangwende)
3. Chief security (Mukomahasha) – General of the armies
4. Chief secretary (Ambuya Mazvarira)
5. The royal princes
6. The head drummer
7. The cook
8. The king’s 9 principal wives – who checked on the loyalty of the provincial rulers and
provided useful advice to the king.
9. The king’s mother (Queen) and sisters
10. The governor of provinces (Nengomasha) – who is like a vice president or the deputy of
the Mutapa
11. Treasurer
12. Chief musician
13. Chief door keeper
14. Priests- who were responsible for rain making, officiated the installation or burial of the
dead Munhumutapa.
Duties of the Mutapa king/ mwenemutapa
1. To control the long distance trade or foreign trade
2. Allocation of grazing land.
3. Lending cattle to his subjects through Kuronzera system.
4. The head of the state
5. Presided over national religious activities
6. Presided over court cases
7. He chose the provincial and district chiefs.
8. He chose the Chiefs security called Mukomahasha.
Military organisations
 The King was the commander in chief of the Army which he led to defend the Kingdom.
 In times of war all men were conscripted in The Army and soldiers were grouped into
battalions.
 The King could gather 3000-5000 soldiers in 24 hours if the need aroused to summon the
army.
 The instruments of war were spears, bows, arrows, hand axes and shields.
 Fighting could be sanctioned or allowed when a vassal chief refused to pay tribute or
when there was a rebellion.
Duties of the Mutapa Army
1. To maintain peace and order.

2. To defend the state.
3. To protect the King and the Royal family
4. For state expansionist purposes.
5. To punish rebels.
6. For raiding goods in other areas.
Social organization of the Mutapa State

Some towns or provinces of the Mutapa State
1. Manyika
2. Guruuswa
3. Mbire
4. Uteve
5. Madanda
6. Dande
 The Mutapa people were a religious people.
 Religion was the chief integrating factor in the state.
 The common belief among the people was that when a King died he would go to heaven
and become the Vadzimu.
 The Mutapa people believed in God and ancestral spirits. The ancestral spirits could be
consulted in times of trouble such as wars and famine.
 The mhondoro were very important during the installation of the new Mutapa. Thus the
presence of religious leaders at the installation ceremony would sweeten the political act
of the King.
 During famine all the people could consult the spirit of Dzivaguru who were at the shrine
of rainmaking.
 The army was also blessed by the religious leaders before going for a military expedition.
Thus all the soldiers would receive some charms from Mangwende the Chief Doctor.
 The Mutapa men were polygamous, they married many wives and had many children.
 The Mutapa people paid bride price inform of cattle, iron tools and even beads and
bangles.
 The King could distribute cattle to his subjects through the Kuronzera system.
 There were social classes in the Mutapa state in which the ruling upper class enjoyed
many privilidges.
Religious organization
Take note that religious activities also falls under social organization or activities
 The Mwenemutapa (King) derived much of its political authority from his religion, priestly,
functioned as sole communicators with the Mhondoro or ancestral spirits of the tribe.
 The Mwenemutapa was viewed as the semi-divine being.
 The ancestral spirit of the tribe were required to intercede with Mwari if the rains or crops
should fail or other disaster befell them.
 The Mutapa people worshipped the Supreme God, Mwari
 Spirit mediums interceded to God on behalf of everyone.
 The king consulted spirit medium in any major decisions like going to war or not and also
to find solutions when they were droughts.
 There were two kinds of spirits:
1. Family Spirits (Mudzimu)
2. Clan Spirit (Mhondoro)
Economic activities of the Mutapa State
Take note that they are similar with of Great Zimbabwe state, but differ in some details.
1. Crop cultivation
 The mutapa state cultivated crops like millet, sorghum and rapoko.
 According to Joao Dos Santos, who visited the Mutapa state. On his arrival he recorded
that the Mutapa people cultivated various grains which included crops like rice, wheat,
sugar cane, coconuts, taro, oranges, lemons, figs, vines and cotton.
 Crops were used to pay lobolla, for food, for brewing beer, trade
 During normal agricultural seasons other activities like mining were suspended.
 Every family member had its piece of land for farming allocated by chiefs or headmen on
behalf of the king.
 The king had the largest fields in every district and these were worked on by everyone. In
times of drought produce from these fields were used to feed the King’s subjects
2. Cattle keeping
 The people of the Great Zimbabwe kept cattle because there was good grazing land and
1. Tribute payment.
5. Used for trade
3. Mining
 The mined gold, tin and iron

 Copper they got it from Zambia and other parts of Zimbabwe
 Minerals were mainly used for trade and tribute payment.
 They practiced two types of mining in the state:
1. Open cast mining of gold to usually less than 50 metres. This was limited by seasonal
flooding.
2. There were also alluvial mining to which gold was recovered from the streams.
 Gold was also used to manufacture objects such as bowls, amulets and ankle rings.
Alluvial mining practiced at Mutapa state
4. Trade
 Trade was divided into two forms that is internal and external trade
External trade or foreign trade
 They traded with the Portuguese from the Zambezi Valley.

 Portuguese primarily sought friendship and alliances with the Mutapa in order to mine
for minerals and to trade in peace and safety
 They paid the required imports and exports duties to the Captain of the gates.
 They were a group of people called Vashambadzi (middle men or sales men) who carried
out the trade on behalf of the elite people.
 They imported clothes, sea shells, china ware, ceramics, bangles, glass, spirits, mirrors,
guns, gun powder
 They exported ivory, gold, copper, animal skins, cattle, etc.
The picture shows ivory
Internal trade or local trade.
 The Mutapa people traded with themselves and also with their neighbors, the Tonga,
tavara, and Maravi on the outside of the Zambezi.
 They locally traded on indigenous cotton cloth, fibre mats, sesame oil (mafuta) and
coconut oil for lighting.
 The Mutapa set up laws and regulations for the extraction of minerals sources,
employment, transportation and trading activities.
5. Tribute payment

skins.

their skins
Men hunting for prey in the wilderness
7. Craft work
 It included basketry, weaving and pottery.

 Pottery found included Zhizo, Gokomore, Bambata,Maxton, Ziwa, Chinhoyi.
Duties of the Captain of the Gates in the Mutapa state
1. Ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa kings.

2. Made sure that the Portuguese paid tribute to the Mutapa.
3. They supervised the paying of taxes on Portuguese goods.
4. Advised the Mutapa kings on matters concerning the Portuguese.
5. Informed the Portuguese government on activities in the Mutapa state.
6. Controlled trade between the Portuguese and the Mutapa state.
7. Linked the Portuguese and the Mutapa.
8. They served as interpreters of the Mutapa kings.
9. They represented the Portuguese government in the Mutapa.
10. They settled disputes between the Portuguese and Africans.
11. Handing gifts from the Portuguese government to the Mutapa.
Portuguese who visited the Mutapa state.
1. Antonio Fernandez
2. Gasper Bacaro
3. Goncalo da Silveira
4. Franciso Barreto
5. Father Pereira
Decline of the Mutapa state or factors that led to the downfall of the Mutapa
State.
Internal factors
1. Succession disputes – Kaparadze vs Mavhura after the death of Gatsi Rusere in 1624
2. The vastness of the empre.
3. Poor leader of the Mwenemutapas like Gatsi Rusere, Mavhura etc
4. Regional interference by Changamire Dombo – In 1693 helped Nyakunembiri to
overthrow the Portuguese.
5. The decline of external trade
6. Civil wars – Kaparadze vs Mavhura, Gatsi Rusere vs Matuzianye
7. Natural disasters
External factors
1. Portuguese interference in civil wars and political affairs of the Mutapa state
2. Introduction of Christianity and Islam
3. Death of Father Goncalo da Silveria, a Jesuit Priest who was a Portuguese missionary
4. Prazo system
5. The treaty of 1607 and 1635 with Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande
1. Vastness of the Empire
 The state was too big to be ruled by one man living in a corner of the State.
 At its height the state covered most of the modern day Zimbabwe from the Zambezi in
the North to the Limpopo in the South, Kalahari in the west to the large swatches on
Mozambique in the East.
 Under this circumstances, it was easy for the chiefs for the Dande to refuse to pay tribute
if a weak Mutapa come to power.
 Vassal Lords in distant areas were difficult to punish if they rebelled because it took time
for punitive expeditions to reach them.
2. Portuguese interference
 Continuous civil wars in the ruling class especial during the succession times caused some
rivals to appeal to the Portuguese for military support.
 Portuguese officials, traders, and missionaries often acted as catalysts to the
disintergration of the Mutapa state
 Mutapa Gatsi Rusere and Mutapa Mavhura appealed to the Portuguese for military
assistance, because they were hungry for power
3. Death of Father Goncalo da Silveria and the intervention of the Portuguese.
 Father Goncalo da Silveria was a Jesuit Priest, Portuguese missionary sent to the Mutapa
state to convert them to be Christians so as to wipe out the Arabs traders influence in the
Mutapa state who wanted to convert people to the Islams.
 Mutapa Negomo Mapunzaguti was converted to be a Christian by Father Goncalo da
Silveria and his name was changed to Sebastian. His mother was also converted to
Christianity and her name was changed to Maria.
 Christianity labelled traditional religion and customs as pagan worship, and traditional
religionists did not take this lightly. They saw Negomo Mapunzaguti as rebelling against
traditional customs.
 Spirit mediums advised Mutapa Negomo Mapunzaguti that father Goncalo da Silveria was
a Portuguese spy. Furthermore Arabs (Moslams/Islams) worsened the matter when they
advised the king that father Goncalo da Silveria was bewitching him with his holy water
while was baptized and that he wanted to take away the throne from him
 Mutapa Negomo Mapunzaguti also did not like Christianity doctrines that said polygamy
was bad
 In 1561, Goncalo da Silveria was killed by Mutapa Negomo Mapunzaguti. The Portuguese
used the murder as an excuse to invade the state and expel all the Swahili Arabs from the
state.
 They sent a number of punishable expeditions to the Mutapas.
1. In 1569, under Francisco Barreto
2. Fernandez vasco Homem in 1600
 The expedictions were affected by tropical diseases, lack of food, and they were beaten
or defeated by the Manyika who were at the same time fighting Mutapa.
4. Civil wars
 In the 1590s, the Maravi from the North of the Zambezi had invaded Mutapa in an
attempt to take over the gold fields.
 Gatsi Rusere’s army led by Nengomasha managed to repel the Maravi. Gatsi Rusere had
his uncle killed because Nengomasha had become too powerful and becoming a great
threat to Gatsi Rusere.
 Nengomasha’s relatives, Chiraramuro and Matuzianye rebelled and broke away from
Gatsi Rusere.
 Mukombwe and his Barwe chiefdom also rebelled against Gatsi Rusere.
 Gatsi Rusere appealed for Portuguese assistance to regain control of the rebel chiefdoms.
 Portuguese soldiers led by Captain Diego Simoes Madeira fought and defeated
Matuzianye.
 Gatsi Rusere regained control over the Highveld Kingdom but was never again able to
demand tribute from Barwe, Uteve and Manyika.
 Gatsi Rusere refused to honour his promises to the Portuguese as he had promised them
silver mines and land when he regained power.
 In 1607, Gatsi Rusere was forced to sign a treaty under which he surrendered all the mines
to the King of Portugal.
 From 1609, the Portuguese asserted their independence by refusing to pay taxes to the
Mutapa and the captain of the gates.
5. Succession disputes.
 In 1624, Gatsi Rusere died and was succeeded by his son, Nyambo kapararidze, although
also his uncle Mavhura Mhande was also claiming the throne with the Portuguese
support.
 Nyambo kapararidze declared a trade embargo against the Portuguese after they refused
to pay tribute.
 The Portuguese reacted by declaring war on Kapararidze and a civil war was ensued
between Kapararidze and Mavhura Mhande.
 With the Portuguese support Mavhura won and in 1635 he was appointed the Mutapa
and baptized Phillip and also given rules and regulations to follow:
1. Portuguese were given freedom of action and could now build new churches whenever
they wished.
2. Portuguese representatives within the Mutapa were to enter the state capital with hats
and shoes on. He was to sit on a chair and not clap to the Mutapa.
3. Portuguese traders could now trade in any part of the Mutapa state.
4. The Mutapa lost the right to give any gold bearing territories to any white man or his
representative.
5. The Portuguese was to pay tribute of 3 gold pastar to the Portuguese. He in fact became
a vassal of the Portuguese.
 In 1659, Mavhura Mhande died and the Portuguese installed a new puppet mutapa whom
they had christened as Dominguez, he was replaced by puppet Nyanyadzi christened
Pedro, Nyanyadzi was succeeded by Nyakunembire, baptized Alfonso.
 Nyakunembire tried in 1683 to assert his authority by closing down mines in protest
against harassment by the Portuguese. The Portuguese declared war on Nyakunembiri
who appealed to Changamire Dombo in Guruuswa to come to his aid.
 The Changamire Dombo assisted the Mutapa to destroy the Portuguese at Dambarare in
1693.
 In the 17th century the Mutapa State had grown weaker.
6. The prazo system
 The political system of the Mutapa was balanced through sharing land.
 When the prazo holders took much of the land from Mutapas such political stability was
disturbed since tribes started fighting fearlessly for stripes of land.
 Thus is a much as it is a fact that civil wars contributed to the fall of the Mutapa state.
 Politically, it is a fact that it was increased by the Portuguese to its downfall.
7. 1607 and 1629 treaties signed with the Portuguese.
 In 1607, Portuguese signed (forcefully) a treaty with Gatsi Rusere and surrendered all the
mines to the King of Portugal.
 In 1635, Portuguese signed a treaty with Mutapa Mavhura, where he lost his political
rights to the Portuguese. He was turned to be a puppet leader
Rozvi State
The picture shows the building structure of the Rozvi Kingdom, it’s similar to that of Great
Zimbawe
Other Madzimbabwes found in Zimbabwe
1. Great Zimbabwe
2. Ruanga
3. Chipadze
4. Tsindi
5. Naletale
6. Nhunguza
7. Manekweni
Rozvi Capitals
1. Danangombe
2. Naletale
3. Dhlodhlo
4. Manyanga
5. Kame
6. Tsindi
 Ntabazikhamambo 
Rulers/Changamires of the Rozvi Kingdom

1. Changamire (1490s)
2. Changamire dombo (1670s)
3. Changamire Chirisamhuru (1695)
4. Nechasike (Nechapingura) (1696)
5. Nechagadzike (1767)
6. Rupandamhanga (Rupengo) 1768-1801
7. Gumboremvura (1804)
8. Chirisamhuru (Sabanko) – 1836
9. Tojwechipi (1840- 1866
Origins of the Rozvi State

 The first reference to a Changamire dynasty in the Portuguese documents related to the
period from the 1430s-1540s when there had been a Changamire dynasty which rebelled
against the Mutapa. The last we heard of these early Changamires was their defeat in
1547-8. It is likely that the later Chnagamires were descended from them.
 The founder of the Changamire dynasty and his Rozwi forces arose of the upheaval of the
mid-17th century that accompanied Portuguese attempts to conquer the Mutapa and
Torwa State.
 The Portuguese referred to the Rozvi leader of the time as Changamire.
 Early Rozvi traditions commonly referred to him as Dombolakonachingwayo or simply
Dombo. In other traditions they referred to him as Chikurawedyembewu or simply
Chikura.
 Portuguese souces (Antonio da Conceicao and Caetano de Mello de Castro) locate the
origins of the Changamire Rozvi dynasty in the North-East of the plateau between the
Mutapa state (Mukaranga) and Manyika, but closer to Manyika.
 The term Rozvi was originally used by the Portuguese in reference to the warriors of the
Changamire Rulers of the 18th century and initially applied to the Changamire dynasty of
the Moyo/Mhondizvo totem.
 There are two theories that tries to explain about the origins of the Rozvi State.
Theory 1
 Dombo Changamire was originally a herdsman of the Mutapa Munkombwe.

 Mutapa Mukombwe rewarded Changamire Dombo with a lot of cattle for his good
services
 He seems to have used the Mutapa cattle herds to attract a following.
 According to Bhila, Dombo Changamire began to gather followers around himself in the
1670s and to assert his independence from the Mutapa.
 He began building up his power by seizing some lands that had been under the Mutapa.
 Dombo Changamire’s rise to power was well advanced by the 1680s, at which time he
was already involved in the conquest of the Torwa state (Butwa) in the South-West, as
well as rebelling against the Mutapa.
 It seems clear that the Changamire was involved in the conquest of the South-West at
the same time as he was at war with the Mutapa Munkombwe and the Portuguese.
Theory 2
 It suggests that Rozvi state was a continuation of the Torwa state, probably under a new
ruling lineage.
 Dombo was a successful claimant to throne and came from a family that had military and
religious importance.
Factors that led to the rise of the Rozvi State

1. The civil wars in the Mutapa State and the Torwa state.
2. Personal qualities of Changamire Dombo: Dombo had unique magical powers and
political maturity. The Changamire is said to have powers to call for rain, he could change
the colour of livestock.
3. Payment of tribute form the conquered communities: Torwa, Manyika and Uteve from
the East.
4. Its huge army for imperialism compaigns
5. External trade in gold
6. Huge herds of cattle
1. Its huge army
 The basic force behind the control of the state was the army of the Changamire.
 The evidence we have of the size of the Rozvi army indicates that Changamire could easily
raise 2 000 to 3 000men for an expedition.
 In 1743 a force of about 2 000 Rozvi reached Zumbo, and Beach maintains that there
were at that time other Rozvi forces in existence that were much stronger than 2 000
men. The second figure indicating the size of the Rozvi army comes from 1780-81 when
Changamire dispatched 3 000 soldiers to support the Portuguese at Zumbo.
 Another large Rozvi force was dispatched to Manyika in the 1780s to protect the
construction of a new fort by the Portuguese and to dictate the terms of trade between
the Rozvi, the Manyika and the Portuguese.
 Reports indicate that Rozvi armies were well-armed and disciplined; they maneuvered in
an organized fashion and were divided into groups under commanders of varying rank.
The Portuguese who saw the army that had been dispatched to Manyika commented
approvingly on the superb diplomacy of the commander and the strict discipline of the
army itself on this occasion.
 The discipline of the Rozvi army was echoed in the traditions of the people. The army was
called together by a kind of whistle made of wood, which was used to summon the
regiments. This sounded in the first instance from the headquarters, and then signaled
from home to home, and from division to division.
 The soldiers had battle axes, assegais, and bows and arrows. It is said that only the
Changamire possessed guns.
 This suggests a tight control by the Changamires over the acquisition of firearms by their
subjects. These factors made the Rozvi the most feared and respected fighters south of
the Zambezi before the arrival of the Mfecane groups.
2. External trade in Gold
 Bhila has suggested that the external trade in gold was a source of the wealth and political
and military power of the Changamires.
 Beach mentions that the only goldfields that were directly under the Changamire were
those in Manyanga, and even these were becoming worked out as far as Shona
technology could reach. Beach also doubts that the Rozvi state system was supported by
tribute in gold, and also doubts that the Changamires exercised a monopoly over the gold
trade.
 Bhila maintains that there is a need to interpret Rozvi politics and economy more
critically than has hitherto been the case. The rigid exclusion of the Portuguese from Rozvi
territory by the Changamires, who refused to let them re-establish their old trading feiras,
has often been interpreted as a Rozvi monopoly of external trade. However, recent
historiography on Rozvi politics and society (see S.I. Mudenge, ‘The Rozvi Empire and the
Feira of Zumbo’; also Mudenge, ‘The Role of Foreign Trade in the Rozvi Empire’) shows
that the problem of the Rozvi ‘monopoly of external trade’ has been very much
misunderstood. It was the Portuguese who characterized the refusal by the Rozvi
Changamires to grant them authority to re-establish their old feiras, as a monopoly. Thus
the Rozvi monopoly of external trade should not be construed as meaning that Rozvi
subjects were required to obtain permission in order to trade in gold to their neighbours
or to the Portuguese; neither should it be understood that Rozvi and foreign traders had
to report to Changamire’s court before they dispersed into the interior.
 The whole matter revolved around the Changamire’s refusal to let the Portuguese re-
establish their old feiras.
 It is clear from the three Portuguese sources from which our knowledge of this monopoly
of external trade is derived, that the Rozvi rulers did not indeed allow the Portuguese,
whom they had expelled from the Mutapa dominion at the end of the 17 th century, to re-
establish the old feiras of Dambarare and its neighbours.
 It is also clear that the Portuguese desired to re-establish these feiras because of the
commercial advantages that would accrue to them from re-establishment. The question
that remains to be answered is, why did the Rozvi rulers refuse to let the Portuguese re-
establish their old feiras? So far there has been no satisfactory answer to this, but it has
been suggested that the Rozvi rulers had learnt a lesson from Portuguese
interference/intervention in local politics in the previous centuries, which they did not
want to be repeated.
 Consequently, the gold trade between Butwa and Zumbo was in the hands of middlemen,
the vashambadzi. However, the existence of the vashambadzi cannot be used to
adequately explain the so-called monopoly of external trade because, in any case, it was
to the advantage of the Portuguese to trade through the vashambadzi in the absence of
feiras where the Portuguese traders could reside; furthermore, the vashambadzi knew
the land, the people, and the local politics better. One of the Dominican Friars, Frei Pedro
da Trinidade, who settled at Zumbo between 1726 and 1751 accumulated a lot of wealth
from long distance trade with Butwa, then ruled by Changamire. He traded through the
African agents, the vashambadzi, whom the Portuguese referred to as ‘Mussambazes’ in
their writings.
3. Its huge herds of cattle
 Another possible basis for the power of the Rozvi was cattle herds, given the location of
the state on the South-West of the plateau which has always been a major cattle breeding
environment, and also given the fact that the Changamires had started as cattle herders
in the North-East, and furthermore, they had inherited the famed large cattle herds of
Butwa/Torwa.
 Bhila mentions that Butwa had a reputation for huge cattle herds and also maintains that
the main boast of the Rozvi state was its very large cattle. In 1648, Antonio Gomes
reported that Butwan cows were so big that one had to stand up in order to milk them.
Changamire Dombo and the expansion of the Rozvi State

 In 1684 Dombo Changamire conquered Maungwe and after that it became a Rozvi
tributary kingdom. This rebellious action seems to have invited the attack made upon him
by Mutapa Munkombwe in 1684.
 Changamire was also hostile to the Portuguese, whose numbers were beginning to
increase in the 1680s and 1690s. In the 1680s the Portuguese in Manyika, who were
paying tribute to the Changamire, refused to continue paying tribute, and were attacked
and defeated by Rozvi forces in Maungwe. It was after this battle that the Portuguese
began to refer to the Changamire as their fatal enemy.
 In 1693 Mutapa Nyakunembire invited Dombo Changamire to help him against the
Portuguese. Changamire raided the Feira of Dambarare in November 1693 and killed all
the Portuguese.
 When news of this attack reached all the other Portuguese ferias, the Portuguese
deserted all their feiras except Manyika. The Rozvi burnt down the deserted feira of
Masapa in the e Mutapa state. In 1695 Dombo Changamire invaded the Portuguese feira
of Manyika and also conquered the Manyika kingdom in the process.
 The effect of these Rozvi campaigns of the 1680s and 1690s was that the Portuguese were
expelled from the Zimbabwean plateau and never again attempted to re-establish their
political control there until after the fall of the Rozvi Changamire state in the late 19 th
century. It was because of their profound fear of the Rozvi that the Portuguese considered
them overlords of all the Shona. Portuguese fears that the Rozvi would attack Sena and
Sofala never materialized because Dombo Changamire died in 1696.
Changamire Dombo conquest in the South-West

 It seems that after the Rozvi campaigns of the 1680s and 1690s against the Portuguese,
Dombo turned his attention back to the conquest of the South-West.
 Earlier historians tended to think of Dombo Changamire as a Southwestern ruler who
was in the process of conquering the Northeast to extend his power; but the fact is that
Dombo Changamire at this time (1680s) was a Northeastern ruler who was in the process
of conquering the Southwest.
 Traditions and documents confirm that the conquest of the Southwest was a rapid
process. Moreover, it seems unlikely that Dombo would have devoted as much attention
as he did to his Northeastern campaigns if the conquest of the Torwa state had been
difficult.
 By the time of Dombo’s death in 1696 the Changamire dynasty had conquered the Torwa
state and taken over its capital, which by the end of the 17th century was no longer based
at Khami but Danangombe and Naletale.
 We know little more than this about the conquest of the Torwa state by Changamire
because no literate Portuguese observed it and it happened too long ago for oral
traditions to be reliable as a source of information.
The organization of the Rozvi state

Political organization
 Rozwi rulers were known as the Changamires

 Changamire was overall in charge of the military, religious and political powers
 Position of the Changamire was hereditary
 The power of the King rested mainly with the army.
 Had advisors to assist mainly priests and army commanders
 Provincial chiefs were in charge of provinces. The mambos was in charge of their
installation. Provincial chiefs also had hereditary positions.
 Chiefs were in charge of chiefdoms and were appointed by the Changamire.
 Under the Chiefs were headmen (Sadunhu)
 Allegiances to the Changamire was done through payment of tribute. Tribute was
collected by the army.
 Religious leaders involved in the installation of the Changamire.
 Tumbare acted as regent after the death of the Changamire.
 Tumbare acted as commander of the army, he did so in close liaison with the King. This
was done in order to safe guard against rebellions in the state.
 Changamire’s wives and vanyai advised the ruler around the Court. There are an
intelligence (information gathering) network that informed the king about developments
in the state.
 Tribute was done by the chiefs who owed total allegiance to the Changamire who had
given authority to rule to them.
 Marriage was central to the politics of the Rozvi because it promoted unity.
Social organization
 Rozvi belonged to the Moyo totem and they were patrilineal

 Their homesteads were made up of lineage.
 Those who owned a lot of cattle and wives with many children were highly respected.
 Bride price was paid in form of cattle and iron tools.
 Wearing of glass beads was regarded as the status symbol
 There was polygamy
 The was division of labour: Men were hunters, whilst women were gatherers, child
bearers etc
 They practiced Kuronzera system, where the Changamire loaned cattle to his subjects
 They practiced ritual, religion and rain ceremonies.
 They believed in the existence of a Supreme Being and spirits.
 Changamire was regarded as the semi god.
Religious organization
 The people believed in Mwari who was worshipped through ancestral spirits and
traditional oracles.
 It was believed in the state that Mwari could bring fortune or disaster and that
disobedience of divine rulers was often the cause for the misfortunes that bedeviled
society.
 It was for this reason that the people sought for religious explanation for natural disasters
that befell like droughts, floods, wars etc
 The Changamire presided over the appeasement ceremony, and usually beer was brewed
by young girls or older women who were not sexual active in order to avoid “polluting”
the rituals.
 Changamire was believed to be sacred personality.
Economic organization
1. Crop cultivation
2. Cattle keeping
3. Mining
4. Trade
5. Tribute payment
7. Black smithing
8. Fishing and pottery
9. Raiding
10. Basketry and weaving.
1. Crop cultivation
 The Shona people cultivated crops like sorghum, millet rapoko, melons and beans.
2. Cattle keeping
 The people of the Rozvi Kingdom kept cattle because there was good grazing land and
1. Tribute payment.
5. Used for trade
3. Mining
 The mined gold

4. Trade
 The people of the Rozvi state were involved in both internal and external trade.
 In external trade items such as ivory and gold could be exchanged with exotic goods such
as beads and cloths (black and white calico cloth). They also got guns from trade.
 They traded with the Portuguese…they wanted glass, beads, cloths and guns from the
Portuguese.
 Imports excavations at Khami consists of cloths, beads, Chinese porcelain, Arab and
Portuguese earthenware, European silver, canons, guns.
5. Tribute payment

skins.

their skins
Duties of the Rozvi army
1. Expanding the frontiers of the Rozvi state

2. Defending the state
3. Ensure that the subjects obey the king
4. For raiding
5. Attacking the invaders e.g. the Portuguese in 1693
6. Protecting the refugees who fled from the Portuguese
7. Maintain peace and order
The decline of the Rozvi state

1. Internal factors
1. Successive droughts
2. Succession disputes
3. Disagreement between political leaders and religious leaders
4. Exhaustion or depletion of resources
5. The vastness of the Empire
6. Rozvi failure in incorporating some Chiefdoms
7. Disruption of trade by the Portuguese
8. Civil wars
 The late 18th and early 19th centuries had seen an overall economic decline in progress
in the Changamire state. The goldfields were almost worked out.
 It has been observed by Bhila that the gold trade, which had been a source of wealth and
political and military power for the Changamires, dried up when they needed it most,
during the era of civil wars at home and in the tributary kingdoms from 1795 to the late
1820s.
 The civil wars (1795-1820s) that resulted from the death of the Rozvi Changamire
Rupandamanhanga contributed significantly to the economic decline of the Changamire
Rozvi state. As a result of these wars the Rozvi economy was run down, particularly the
long distance trade, and this helped to render the Changamires politically impotent.
 The period which witnessed the most intensified civil wars in the state was characterized
by attacks by the Hiya which disrupted the gold trade between Butwa and Zumbo. There
is ample evidence that the Hiya attacked traders along the Butwa-Zumbo trade route.
 In 1802 the capitao-mor of the feira of Zumbo, Jose Pedro Diniz, wrote that the interior
of Butwa was in total decadence because of the Hiya wars and five years of successive
hunger which the whole country had experienced.
 In 1808 Joao de Souza, who succeeded Diniz as capitao-mor at Zumbo, also corroborated
this decline of trade with Butwa when he wrote “because of the continuous wars that
have been taking place there [Butwa] the mines have almost all been shut down and we
are unable to draw profits from there [Butwa] as in the past.”

2. External factors
1. Nguni incursion
The Nguni groups who attacked the Rozvi state
1. Maseko
2. Kololo
3. Ngoni
4. Ndebele
5. Ngwane
6. Msene Ngoni
7. Jere Ngoni
In the 1830s, for instance, Zwangendaba was defeated by Soshangane of the Gaza State.
Consequently, Zwangendaba migrated into the Zimbabwe plateau with his Ngoni army, fighting
and scattering most of the surviving Rozvi people. He proceeded to areas north of the Zambezi
and the Rozvi state was left on the brink of collapse.In 1837, another group of Nguni warriors
fleeing the wars in the Nguniland area, and led by a woman warrior called Nyamazana, crossed
the Limpopo and fought the remnants of the Rozvi army. They captured and killed the Rozvi ruler,
Chirisamhuru. After that Nyamazana moved west of the plateau and hooked up with the
Ndebele, another group that had run away from Tshaka and was under Mzilikazi. Nyamazana
became Mzilikazi’s wife. In the early 1840s, the Ndebele arrived on the plateau, led by Mzilikazi
and invaded the capital of the Rozvi at Khami on the western edge of the pleateau. Unlike their
other Nguni cousins, the Ndebele decided to stay permanently on the platea. The Shangani that
had tossed out Zwangendaba also started to raid Rozvi territory from the direction of Chipinge in
the south east. Faced with pressure from all corners, the Rozvi state crumbled. In fact, the
Mfecane wars were probably the major cause of the collapse of the state. In a short period of
less than 15 years, the Rozvi state was attacked by at least six strong groups, i.e., the Ngwane,
Maseko Ngoni, Zwangendaba, Nxaba, Nyamazana and the Ndebele. After 1860, the Rozvi state
existed only in name. In 1890, CJ Rhodes and the BSAC occupied the area inhabited by the Rozvi,
the remaining place where the Rozvi still claimed to have a hold on. The group disappeared from
the map with their last nominal ruler, Tohwechipi. In the 1860s, the Hiya, a group of migrants
from the Save Valley set off on a career of raiding from the Save to Gwelo. They were not crushed
by the Rozvi until the 1790s, and they were ferocious that Birmingham and Martin say that “their
thirty years of raiding gave the central plateau a foretaste of the Mfecane raids of the next
century.”
The Ndebele State
King Mzilikazi (Mzila we gazi ka Matshobane) founder of the Ndebele kingdom
Origins of the Ndebele Kingdom

 Mzilikazi was born in 1776, son of Matshobane of the Khumalo clan which was ruled by
Zwide of the Ndwandwe.
 In 1818, soon after the Ndwandwe-Zulu war of 1818, Mzilikazi deserted his grandfather
(Zwide) and transferred his allegiance to Shaka. Mzilikazi was particularly bitter against
Zwide because he had instructed Matshobane his father to be killed suspecting him of
betrayal.
 In 1818 the Khumalo supported Shaka against Zwide. Shaka was very grateful for the help
and allowed Mzilikazi to remain both traditional chief and military leader of the Khumalo
regiments.
 Shaka took a special liking to Mzilikazi so much that Mzilikazi was accorded a special
treatment. He became Shaka’s most trusted and most favoured induna and army general.
 In 1821, Shaka sent Mzilikazi on a raiding expedition against neighbouring Sotho group.
The mission yield a lot of cattle which Mzilikazi decided to keep instead of handing them
over to Shaka.
 Shaka sent 10 royal messengers representing King Shaka to demand what was due to
Shaka. When the messengers delivered Shaka’s message, Mzilikazi became extremely
angry and then performed a strange act of insult against the messengers that surprised
everyone. He ordered his regiments to “surround the dogs and cut the tops of their
plumes”. When the regiments hesitated he hacked them himself before ordering the
messengers to “Depart! And tell the King Shaka it rests with him whether it be war or
peace”
 In no time Shaka sent military regiments to punish Mzilikazi. Mzilikazi who had gathered
his Khumalo people on the top of Ntumbane hill, repulsed this first regiments.
 A second regiment sent by Shaka was able to inflict heavy punishment to the Khumalo
regiments. Mzilikazi then realized the danger of his clan being destroyed and he escaped
in 1822 over the Drakensberg Mountains at the head of 200-300 soldiers, women,
children and some livestock.
 They got the name Ndebele which their association with the Sotho in the Transvaal
region. Ndebele means strangers from the coast
King Lobhengula (Lo obe gula) second King of the Ndebele Kingdom (last king of the Ndebele
State)
Journey of the Ndebele state
1. The Ndebele State on the Highveld, South of the Limpopo

 Mzilikazi was able to evade the pursuing Zulu regiments as he cut his path of escape
among several small-scale groups on the Highveld. On his way across the Vaal River he
captured cattle, men, women and children. His numbers continued to rise as he was
joined by some Nguni people who had earlier crossed over the Drakensberg Mountains
to live amongst the Sotho communities of the Highveld.
 In 1824, he settled at a place called Ekuphumuleni - resting place for three years. At
Ekuphumuleni, Mzilikazi embarked on numerous raids against the Pedi and other Sotho
groups. These military campaigns increased his herds and followers and accommodated
refugees running away from Shaka.
 This was the period when the Khumalos were called Ndebele by the Sotho meaning Nguni
strangers from the Coast.
 In 1827, Mzilikazi moved his capital to a new capital called Mhlahlandlela. Mzilikazi had
realized that Ekuphumuleni was too close to Shaka who was still determined to punish
the Khumalos. They were also raided by the Pedi in Ekuphumuleni.
 At Mhlahlandlela, Mzilikazi attacked the Kwena and Kgatla states of central Transvaal for
5-7 years. At Mhlahlandlela, Mzilikazi was paid tribute by the Gabeni and Nkungwini.
 However Mhlahlandlela lacked total peace and security from outsiders. In 1828, the
Ndebele were attacked by the Kora assisted by the Sotho-Tswana. Moreover the place
was also reachable to Dingane, the new Zulu king (after the death of Shaka) who in 1830
sent a regiment to punish Mzilikazi.
 The Griqua-Sotho forces made several attacks on Mzilikazi at Mhlahlandela, whuch made
the Ndebeles to abandon Mhlahlandlela to another capital.
 Mzilikazi then sought to gain friendship of white missionaries and traders, who might
supply him with firearms and help him defeat the Griqua (who were fighting on horseback
with firearms).
2. Mzilikazi relations with the Europeans
 Two traders, Robert Schoon and William McLukie visited Mzilikazi soon after the attack
by the Griqua and familiarized him with firearms. The traders were willing to put in a good
word for Mzilikazi with the London Missionary Society and Wesley missionary working at
Kuruman and Pladitberg. Mzilikazi sent his ambassador Mncumbata Khumalo to Kuruman
Mission with an invitation to Robert Moffat to visit the Ndebele.
 In 1829, Robert Moffat visited Mzilikazi and the two men became best friends for many
years to come.
 Mzilikazi was not interested in Moffat’s religious teachings. He wanted the latter’s
assistance and advice in his dealings with the Europeans and to use Moffat as a source of
firearms.
3. from Mhlahlandela to Mosega
 In 1832, Mzilikazi moved his settlement westwards to Mosega on the Madikwe (marico)
river. From this new base he attacked most of the Tswana groups in Western Transvaal
and those in present day Botswana until he was defeated and driven out of Mosega by a
joint force of Boers, Tswana and Griqua in 1837.
4. Migration into Zimbabwe
 In November 1837, Mzilikazi and about 15 000 people crossed the Limpopo river. The
migration to Zimbabwe was a terrible experience for Mzilikazi. The nation threatened to
break up. At the Chwapong hills in modern Botswana, Mzilikazi split his group into two
groups which were to follow different routes to find sufficient water.
 The first group was led by Gundwane Ndiweni. This consisted of old people, children and
women, most of the cattle, sheeps and goats. The group travelled with Nkulumane the
heir and other Mzilikazi children such as Lobhengula. The group was the first to arrive in
Zimbabwe and settled around Ntabazinduna, the flat topped hill about 10 Kilometres
from modern Bulawayo.
 The second group led by Mzilikazi himself and senior indunas like Maqhekeni Sithole
travelled through Lake Ngami and probably tried to approach the Zambezi, but was driven
back by tsetse flies which killed hundreds of their herds. This group entered Zimbabwe
through the Makarikari Lake.
 In 1840, the two groups rejoined, Gundwane Ndiweni and other chiefs had installed
Nkulumane as their King.
 The excuse given was that they already started growing crops and needed a King who
could lead them in the ceremony of the first fruits (Inxwala ceremony), which was also
conducted to purify the nation. They had also assumed that Mzilikazi was dead.
 Mzilikazi regarded the installation of his son in his life time as an act of rebellion by the
chiefs concerned. These leaders were tried and either executed or forced to flee.
 The fate of Nkulumane is unkown. Some says that he was either killed with the rest of the
rebels or was executed. Some says that he was sent to go and live with his maternal
relatives of Zwide in South.
Ndebele settlement during their migration
1. Ekuphumuleni
2. Emhlahlandlela
3. Gabeni
4. Mosega
5. Endinaneni
6. Enkwengwini
7. Tshweyane
Groups fought by the Ndebele
1. Hurutshe
2. Kora
3. Rolong
4. Griqua
5. British
6. Boers
7. Sotho
8. Taung
People who occupied Western Zimbabwe when the Ndebele entered
1. Rozvi
2. Virwa
3. Kalanga
4. Nyubi
5. Tonga
6. Venda
Effects of migration on the Khumalos (Ndebele)
1. The Sotho gave the Khumalo the name Ndebele
2. Intermarriages
3. Loss of life
4. Establishment of friendship with Robert Moffat
5. Cultural fusion
6. Loss of possessions during war
Organization of the Ndebele State
Political organization
1. Powers of the Ndebele king / Inkosi
At the top of the political structure was the King who had political, judicial, religious and
economic powers. His powers included:
1. Commander in Chief of the army
2. The highest judge
3. Presiding over religious ceremonies
4. Distribution of captives and cattle
5. Allocation of land
6. Coordinated military strategy
7. Got rid of opponents
 The king also appointed the Indunas or headmen of villages and received detailed reports
from them.
 The king also controlled the provinces partly by placing his many wives in regimental
towns from which they reported significant developments.
 All land, cattle, and people belonged to the King.
2. Advisory council
 Mzilikazi had absolute powers but they were checked by his two advisory council who
were the Mphakathi and Izikhulu
 UMphakathi was made up of royal family and elders chosen for their great knowledge of
traditional customs
 Izikhulu were made up of the izinduna zamabutho (regimental chiefs)
 The king made decision after listening to the advice he got from the members of the
uMphakathi and Izikhulu
3. The regiment / Amabutho system
 The Ndebele society was divided into four provinces under one great chief or senior
induna. These provinces were initially made up of numbers of regimental towns.
 Each regimental town was commanded by induna.
 These regimental towns were the administrative headquarters and military centres for
the whole populace.
 The army numbering about 20 000 men in the later years of Mzilikazi reign was divided
into regimental units.
 All male adults formed part of the army and therefore belonged to regiments. Married
men were allowed to live in the regiment towns with their wives and servants.
 They constituted a king of a reserve force which was called up in an emergency.
 The amabutho in the regimental towns were not allowed involved in war on full time
basis. They played an important role in the state economy by herding the national cattle.
Social organization
Zansi 15%
Abe Hla 25 %
Ama Hole 60 %
Social structure of the Ndebele state
 The Ndebele society was divided into three caste groups.
1. Abezansi (The Zansi)
 This was made up of the descendants of the original Khumalos from Zululand.
 They consisted the aristocracy and dominated the top administrative and political
positions.
 They numbered 15% of the total population.
2. Abenhla (The Enhla)
 In their twenty years of wandering South of Limpopo, the Ndebele swelled their number
by incorporating other people.
 They were recruited from the Orange Free State, Transvaal and the borders of Botswana.
 The group mainly consisted of Sotho, Tswana, and Swazi people.
 The group consisted the second class or middle power group from which the advisors and
trusted indunas were drawn.
 They numbered 25% of the population.
3. Amahole (The Hole)
 The amahole consisted largely of Shona, Kalanga, Nyubi, Tonga, Venda, Virwa, Nanzwa
who had been captured after Mzilikazi crossed the Limpopo and when he settled in
Matebeland.
 It was the largest group which was making up 60% of the Ndebele people.
 It was the lowest class, which provided with the needed labour for servicing the state in
form of soldiers, cultivators, cattle herders and messengers of the King.
Economic organization
1. Trade
2. Livestock production
3. Tribute
5. Raiding
6. Crop cultivation
7. Mining
8. Black smithing
9. Pottery
1. Crop cultivation
 The Ndebele people cultivated drought resistance crops like sorghum, millet rapoko and
maize by individual homesteads.
 Shifting cultivation was practiced.
 There were special fields belonging to the King in each settlement which were cultivated
and harvested first.
2. Cattle keeping/ pastoralism/ Livestock keeping
 The people of the Ndebele Kingdom kept cattle because there was good grazing land and
they also practiced Ukusisa/ukugalisa system. Such cattle were known as royal cattle.
Those who benefited from the scheme were not allowed to slaughter the cattle, they
could only milk them and plough with them.
 The royal cattle could be used to reward loyal servants and soldiers
1. Tribute payment.
5. Used for trade
6. Used in ritual ceremonies such as Inxwala (first fruit festival)
3. Mining
 The mined gold

4. Trade
 There was both local and long distance trade.

 In long distance trade, they traded with the European traders such as the Portuguese who
provided guns.
 They exported ivory, and gold for guns and cloths.
 After 1867, they started to trade with the South African Kimberley and Transvaal Republic
mines. The miners provided the Ndebele with blankets and clothing and acquired cattle
from the Ndebele state.
 The King controlled trading activities
 In local trade, they traded with the Shona people.
5. Tribute payment

 It was also to show a sign of loyalty to the Nkosi, everyone was supposed to pay tribute
to the King.
skins.

their skins
7. Raiding
 They raided the Shona people for grain and women who were often as the backbone of
the economy.
Achievements of Mzilikazi
1. He created a large, strong independent state that survived internal and external pressure
and threats way back on the Sotho-Tswana Highveld until it was destroyed by the British
South Africa Company (BSAC) in 1893
2. He was able to combine elements of Nguni, Sotho-Tswana and Shona culture and customs
to establish one of the most powerful kingdoms north of the Limpopo.
3. He also changed the ethnic composition of modern Zimbabwe. He left a legacy of unity
between the two major ethnics groups in Zimbabwe. The kingdom enjoyed relative rule
and order and his rule was not as harsh and brutal as that of Shaka and Dingane.
 Mzilikazi died in 1868 and he was mourned by his people saying “Intaba Seyidilikile”
meaning “The mountain has fallen”
 Mzilikazi was succeeded by his son Lobengula

The Zimbabwean States

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The Zimbabwean States

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BY SYDNEY NJABULO SITHOLE…Diplo in Edu.

THE ZIMBABWEAN STATES: GREAT ZIMBABWE, MUTAPA

1|Page created by Sydney Njabulo Sithole +263775546554

2|Page created by Sydney Njabulo Sithole +263775546554

The Zimbabwe soft stone bird

3|Page created by Sydney Njabulo Sithole +263775546554

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The Great Zimbabwe site, located in Masvingo, Zimbabwe

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 Livestock enabled ruling class to get richer.

 They mined gold, iron and tin

 Copper ingots from Zambia

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The purpose of the great enclosure (Imbahuru)/ Stone structures

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 The mined gold, tin and iron

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Gold mined at the Great Zimbabwe State

External trade or foreign trade

The picture shows ivory

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 This was a state revenue where the king collected tribute.

 This was a division of labour between men and women.

 It included basketry, weaving and pottery.

The decline of the Great Zimbabwe State

Economic factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

Social factors for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

Ecological factors (ecosystem)

Shift and competition for trade

Natural disasters and diseases

Origins and introduction to the Mutapa state

Factors that led to the rise of the Mutapa state

1. Availability of gold and other minerals.’

1. Exhaustion of soil in Great Zimbabwe

Organisation of the Mutapa state

Some leaders or rulers of the Mutapa State

Other government officials in the Mutapa political structure

Duties of the Mutapa king/ mwenemutapa

Duties of the Mutapa Army

1. To maintain peace and order.

Social organization of the Mutapa State

 The mined gold, tin and iron

Alluvial mining practiced at Mutapa state

External trade or foreign trade

 They traded with the Portuguese from the Zambezi Valley.

The picture shows ivory

Internal trade or local trade.

 This was a state revenue where the king collected tribute.

 This was a division of labour between men and women.

Men hunting for prey in the wilderness

 It included basketry, weaving and pottery.

Duties of the Captain of the Gates in the Mutapa state

1. Ensured that the Portuguese obeyed the Mutapa kings.

Portuguese who visited the Mutapa state.

1. Vastness of the Empire

Rulers/Changamires of the Rozvi Kingdom

Origins of the Rozvi State

 Dombo Changamire was originally a herdsman of the Mutapa Munkombwe.

Factors that led to the rise of the Rozvi State

1. Its huge army

2. External trade in Gold

Changamire Dombo and the expansion of the Rozvi State