Nuclear

Chemistry and
Energy
Unit 2 - Matter and Energy

Nuclear chemistry is the study of the chemical and physical

properties of elements as influenced by changes in the structure of
the atomic nucleus.
 Antoine-Henri Becquerel
Marie Curie & Pierre Curie

Radioactivity – the unstable nuclei emit particles and/or electromagnetic

radiation spontaneously
All elements having an atomic number > 83 are radioactive.

Conservation of Mass Number

- total number of protons plus neutrons in the products and in the reactants must be the same

Conservation of Atomic Number

- total number of nuclear charges in the products and in the reactants must
be the same

Let’s try this one:

 Nuclear Stability
The stability of any nucleus is determined by the difference between
coulombic repulsion and the short-range attraction.

If repulsion outweighs attraction, the nucleus

disintegrates, emitting particles and/or
radiation.

If attractive forces prevail, the nucleus is

stable.

The principal factor that

determines whether a nucleus is
stable is the neutron-to proton
ratio (n/p).
The following
 rules are useful in predicting nuclear stability:
• Nuclei that contain 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126 protons or neutrons are generally
more stable than nuclei that do not possess these numbers. For example, there
are 10 stable isotopes of tin (Sn) with the atomic number 50 and only 2 stable
isotopes of antimony (Sb) with the atomic number 51. The numbers 2, 8, 20, 50,
82, and 126 are called magic numbers. The significance of these numbers for
nuclear stability is similar to the numbers of electrons associated with the very
stable noble gases (that is, 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86 electrons).

• Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are generally more
stable than those with odd numbers of these particles

• All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher than 83 are radioactive.
All isotopes of technetium (Tc, Z=43) and promethium (Pm, Z=61) are radioactive.
 1
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE
DECAY
 Ernest Rutherford’s Experiment
Alpha (α) decay is the emission of an α particle
from the nucleus. For example, polonium-210
undergoes α decay:

Alpha decay occurs primarily in heavy nuclei

 (Mass Number > 200, Atomic Number > 83).
Beta (β) decay is the emission of an electron from a
nucleus. Iodine-131 is an example of a nuclide that
undergoes β decay:

Emission of an electron does not change the mass

number of the nuclide but does increase the number of
its protons and decrease the number of its neutrons.
Gamma emission (γ emission) is observed when a nuclide is
formed in an excited state and then decays to its ground state with
the emission of a γ ray, a quantum of high-energy electromagnetic
radiation.
The presence of a nucleus in an excited state is often indicated
by an asterisk (*). Cobalt-60 emits γ radiation and is used in
many applications including cancer treatment:

Positron emission (β+ decay) is the emission of a positron from

the nucleus. Oxygen-15 is an example of a nuclide that
undergoes positron emission:

Electron capture occurs when one of the inner electrons

in an atom is captured by the atom’s nucleus. For
example, potassium-40 undergoes electron capture.
 Electron capture has the same effect on the nucleus as does
positron emission. Whether electron capture or positron
emission occurs is difficult to predict. The choice is primarily
due to kinetic factors, with the one requiring the smaller
activation energy being the one more likely to occur.
Sample Problem
The reaction of an α particle with magnesium-25 (A=25, Z=15) produces a
proton and a nuclide of another element. Identify the new nuclide
produced.
Solution
The nuclear reaction can be written as:

Because the sum of the mass numbers of the reactants must equal the sum of the mass
 numbers of the products:

Similarly, the charges must balance, so:

The element with nuclear charge = +13 is aluminum. Thus, the product is

Sample Problem

The nuclide I (A=125, Z=53) combines with an electron and

produces a new nucleus and no other massive particles.
What is the equation for this reaction?
 KINETICS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
All radioactive decays obey first-order kinetics. Therefore, the rate of radioactive decay at any
time t is given by

λ = the first-order rate constant

N = the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t
The number of radioactive nuclei at time zero (N0) and time t (Nt) is

and the corresponding half-life of the reaction is given by

A radioactive half-life refers to the amount of time it takes for half of the original isotope to decay.
 Sample Problem

If the half-life of 100.0 grams of a radioactive isotope is

8 years, how many grams will remain in 32 years?

Sample Problem

What is the decay constant for a radioactive isotope with

a half-life of 22.5 hours?
 Sample Problem

The half-life of Zn-71 is 2.4 minutes. If one had 100.0 g at the

beginning, how many grams would be left after 7.2 minutes
has elapsed?
Transmutation, Nuclear Fission and
Fusion
Nuclear transmutation is the
result from the bombardment
of
nuclei by neutrons, protons, or
other nuclei.

Particle accelerators made it

possible to synthesize the so
called transuranium
elements,
elements with atomic
numbers
greater than 92.
Nuclear fission is the process in which
a heavy nucleus (mass number > 200)
divides to form smaller nuclei of
intermediate mass and one or more
neutrons.
The first nuclear fission reaction to be
studied was that of uranium-235
bombarded with slow neutrons, whose
speed is comparable to that of air
molecules at room temperature.

A nuclear chain reaction is a self

sustaining sequence of nuclear fission
reactions.
Nuclear fusion is the combining of
small nuclei into larger ones, is largely
exempt from the waste disposal
problem.

Because fusion reactions take place

only at very high temperatures, they
are often called thermonuclear
reactions.

Fusion takes place only at very high

temperatures, so high that controlled
large-scale nuclear fusion has so far
not been achieved.