DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Domestic violence is violence committed by someone in the victim's domestic circle. This includes
partners and ex-partners, immediate family members, other relatives and family friends. The term
'domestic violence' is used when there is a close relationship between the offender and the victim.

Forms of violence

Physical violence - Any act which causes physical harm as a result of unlawful physical force. ...

Sexual violence - Any sexual act perfomed on an individual without their consent. ...

Psychological violence - Any act which causes psychological harm to an individual. ...

Economic violence - Any act or behaviour which causes economic harm to an individual.

What is domestic behavior?

Domestic behaviors - For example, some people expect that women will take care of the children, cook,
and clean the home, while men take care of finances, work on the car, and do the home repairs.

Why do people suffer from domestic violence?

Risk factors for domestic and family violence include individual, relationship, community, and societal
issues. There is an inverse relationship between education and domestic violence. Lower education
levels correlate with more likely domestic violence.

What are the 10 causes of violence?

Individual Risk Factors

1. History of violent victimization.

2. Attention deficits, hyperactivity, or learning disorders.
3. History of early aggressive behavior.
4. Involvement with drugs, alcohol, or tobacco.
5. Low IQ.
6. Poor behavioural control.
7. Deficits in social cognitive or information-processing abilities.
8. High emotional distress.
9. History of treatment for emotional problems
10. Antisocial beliefs and attitudes
FOOT BINDING

Foot binding, was the Chinese custom of breaking and tightly binding the feet of young girls in order to
change their shape and size. Feet altered by foot binding were known as lotus feet, and the shoes made
for these feet were known as lotus shoes. In late imperial China, bound feet were considered a status
symbol and a mark of feminine beauty. However, foot binding was a painful practice that limited the
mobility of women and resulted in lifelong disabilities.

Foot binding was viewed as a rite of passage for young girls and was believed to be preparation for
puberty, menstruation, and childbirth. It symbolized a girl's willingness to obey, just as it limited the
mobility and power of females, kept women subordinate to men, and increased the differences
between the sexes.

BREAST FLATTENING

Breast ironing, also known as breast flattening, is the pounding and massaging of a pubescent girl's
breasts, using hard or heated objects, to try to make them stop developing or disappear. The practice is
typically performed by a close female figure to the victim, traditionally fulfilled by a mother,
grandmother, aunt, or female guardian who will say she is trying to protect the girl from sexual
harassment and rape ,to prevent early pregnancy that would tarnish the family name ,preventing the
spread of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS ,or to allow the girl to pursue education
rather than be forced into early marriage.

It is mostly practiced in parts of Cameroon, where boys and men may think that girls whose breasts have
begun to grow are ready for sex. Evidence suggests that it has spread to the Cameroonian diaspora, for
example to Britain ,where the law defines it as child abuse .The most widely used implement for breast
ironing is a wooden pestle normally used for pounding tubers. Other tools used include leaves, bananas,
coconut shells, grinding stones, ladles, spatulas ,and hammers heated over coals .The ironing practice is
generally performed around dusk or dawn in a private area such as the household kitchen to prevent
others from seeing the victim or becoming aware of the process, particularly fathers or other male
figures. The massaging process could occur anywhere between one week to several months, depending
on the victim's refusal and the resistance of the breasts; in cases where the breasts appear to be
consistently protruding, the ironing practice may occur more than once a day for these weeks or months
at a time.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity (SOGI)

Council of Europe's standards and mechanisms seek to promote and ensure respect for the human
rights of every individual. These include equal rights and dignity of all human beings, including lesbian,
gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) persons .The Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Unit (SOGI Unit) is a committed partner in the work of the Youth Department with LGBT youth through
its education and training programme and youth-policy development.

In addition, the SOGI Unit, the Roma and Travellers team and the Youth Department co-organised the
Conference Being Roma and LGBTI: at the crossroads of discrimination to raise awareness on the
challenges faced by young Roma LGBTI persons and the work conducted by Roma LGBTI activists,
including youth activists.

The SOGI Unit and the Education Department are conducting jointly a European study on Education
Sector’s response to homophobic and transphobic bullying to identify best practices. A report will be
published in 2018 and will be the basis for future work on anti-bullying.

Previous work included the surveys on hate speech conducted by the Youth Department in 2012 and
2015 showed that homophobic and transphobic hate speech is the most frequently encountered form
of hate speech online. Addressing such hate speech is a cause for action for all.

The campaign organised in co-operation with the SOGI Unit and the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual,
Transgender, Queer and Intersex Youth & Student Organisation (IGLYO) a seminar entitled "Young
People’s responses to Homophobic and Transphobic Hate Speech", which took place in May 2014. The
seminar report lists suggestions for possible future steps to further strengthen young people’s response
to homophobic and transphobic hate speech, and presents case studies in the areas of knowledge
building, strengthening solidarity, religion, educational response and legislation.

A desktop study entitled “Young People’s Initiatives to Address Homophobic and Transphobic Hate
Speech” was conducted in the spring of 2014. It maps out a number of initiatives that successfully
involve youth (including from within and beyond the lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans , queer and intersex
(LGBTQI) community) addressing homophobic and transphobic hate speech.
FEMALE GENITAL CIRCUMSATION

Female genital mutilation (FGM) comprises all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. The
practice has no health benefits for girls and women and cause severe bleeding and problems urinating,
and later cysts, infections, as well as complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths.

The practice of FGM is recognized internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women.
It reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination
against girls and women. It is nearly always carried out by traditional practitioners on minors and is a
violation of the rights of children. The practice also violates a person's rights to health, security and
physical integrity; the right to be free from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment; and the
right to life, in instances when the procedure results in death. In several settings, there is evidence
suggesting greater involvement of health care providers in performing FGM due to the belief that the
procedure is safer when medicalized . WHO strongly urges health care providers not to perform FGM
and has developed a global strategy and specific materials to support health care providers against
medicalization.

Types of FGM

Female genital mutilation is classified into 4 major types:

Type 1: This is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans (the external and visible part of the
clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals), and/or the prepuce/clitoral hood (the fold of
skin surrounding the clitoral glans).

Type 2: This is the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora (the inner folds of
the vulva), with or without removal of the labia majora (the outer folds of skin of the vulva).

Type 3: Also known as infibulation, this is the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a
covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora, or labia majora,
sometimes through stitching, with or without removal of the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and glans.

Type 4: This includes all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes,
e.g., pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterizing the genital area.

No health benefits, only harm

FGM has no health benefits, and it harms girls and women in many ways. It involves removing and
damaging healthy and normal female genital tissue, and it interferes with the natural functions of girls'
and women's bodies. Although all forms of FGM are associated with increased risk of health
complications, the risk is greater with more severe forms of FGM.
Immediate complications of FGM can include:

Severe pain

Excessive bleeding (haemorrhage)

Genital tissue swelling

Fever

Infections , tetanus

Urinaryn problems

Wound healing problems

Injury to surrounding genital tissue

Shock

Death

Long-term complications can include:

urinary problems (painful urination, urinary tract infections);

vaginal problems (discharge, itching, bacterial vaginosis and other infections);

menstrual problems (painful menstruations, difficulty in passing menstrual blood, etc.);scar tissue and
keloid;

sexual problems (pain during intercourse, decreased satisfaction, etc.);increased risk of childbirth
complications (difficult delivery, excessive bleeding, caesarean section, need to resuscitate the baby,
etc.) and newborn deaths;need for later surgeries: for example, the sealing or narrowing of the vaginal
opening (type 3) may lead to the practice of cutting open the sealed vagina later to allow for sexual
intercourse and childbirth (deinfibulation). Sometimes genital tissue is stitched again several times,
including after childbirth, hence the woman goes through repeated opening and closing procedures,
further increasing both immediate and long-term risks.

Psychological problems (depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, low self-esteem, etc.).

FGM is mostly carried out on young girls between infancy and adolescence, and occasionally on adult
women. According to available data from 30 countries where FGM is practiced in the western, eastern,
and north-eastern regions of Africa, and some countries in the Middle East and Asia, more than 200
million girls and women alive today have been subjected to the practice with more than 3 million girls
estimated to be at risk of FGM annually. FGM is therefore of global concern.
Cultural and social factors for performing FGM

The reasons why FGM is performed vary from one region to another as well as over time and include a
mix of sociocultural factors within families and communities.

Where FGM is a social convention (social norm), the social pressure to conform to what others do and
have been doing, as well as the need to be accepted socially and the fear of being rejected by the
community, are strong motivations to perpetuate the practice.

FGM is often considered a necessary part of raising a girl, and a way to prepare her for adulthood and
marriage. This can include controlling her sexuality to promote premarital virginity and marital
fidelity.Some people believe that the practice has religious support, although no religious scripts
prescribe the practice. Religious leaders take varying positions with regard to FGM, with some
contributing to its abandonment.

Reasons for medicalized FGM

There are many reasons why health-care providers perform FGM. These include:

The belief that there is reduced risk of complications associated with medicalized FGM as compared to
non-medicalized FGM;

The belief that medicalization of FGM could be a first step towards full abandonment of the
practice;health care providers who perform FGM are themselves members of FGM- practising
communities and are subject to the same social norms; and there may be a financial incentive to
perform the practice.

However, with WHO’s support and training, many health care providers are becoming advocates for
FGM abandonment within the clinical setting and with their families and communities.

WHO response In 2008, the World Health Assembly passed resolution WHA61.16 on the elimination of
FGM, emphasizing the need for concerted action in all sectors: health, education, finance, justice and
women's affairs.

WHO supports a holistic health sector response to FGM prevention and care, by developing guidance
and resources for health workers to prevent FGM and manage its complications and by supporting
countries to adapt and implement these resources to local contexts. WHO also generates evidence to
improve the understanding of FGM and what works to end this harmful practice.

Since then, WHO has developed a global strategy against FGM medicalization with partner organizations
and continues to support countries in its implementation.
SEX CHANGE

Sex and gender are terms that are often used interchangeably but they are in fact two different
concepts, even though for many people their sex and gender are the same. This article will clarify the
differences between sex and gender and why these differences are important to understand, especially
in research and data collection. How and why sex and gender is important for SDGs and the principle of
“leave no one behind” will be considered. It includes the UK government position on these concepts.
ONS has done a lot of research and participated in discussions to understand these terms.

Definitions and differences

The UK government defines sex as:

Referring to the biological aspects of an individual as determined by their anatomy, which is produced
by their chromosomes, hormones and their interactionsgenerally male or femalesomething that is
assigned at birth .

The UK government defines gender as:

A social construction relating to behaviours and attributes based on labels of masculinity and femininity;
gender identity is a personal, internal perception of oneself and so the gender category someone
identifies with may not match the sex they were assigned at birth where an individual may see
themselves as a man, a woman, as having no gender, or as having a non-binary gender – where people
identify as somewhere on a spectrum between man and woman.

The World Health Organisation regional office for Europe describes sex as characteristics that are
biologically defined, whereas gender is based on socially constructed features. They recognise that there
are variations in how people experience gender based upon self-perception and expression, and how
they behave.

Essentially, nearly all people are born with physical characteristics that are labelled male or female. In
1964, Robert Stoller1 coined the term gender identity, which refers to an individual’s personal concept
about their gender and how they feel inside. It is a deeply held internal sense of self and is typically self-
identified. Gender identity differs from sexual identity and is not related to an individual’s sexual
orientation (for more information, see the Terminology page of the Gender Identity Research and
Education Society). As such, the gender category with which a person identifies may not match the sex
they were assigned at birth.

Gender is increasingly understood as not binary but on a spectrum. Growing numbers of people are
identifying as somewhere along a continuum between man and woman, or as non-gendered (neither
man nor woman) (see Gender Spectrum). Therefore, they often have their own words to describe
themselves rather than using pre-defined categories of male and female (for more information, see
Gender Identity Workshop, Summary of Discussions). While more people are identifying as non-binary,
this is not a new concept and has existed for many years across different cultures around the world.
Variations in sex characteristics

Sex and gender are both generally referred to in two distinct categories: male and female or man and
woman. However, there are naturally occurring instances of variations in sex characteristics (sometimes
known as intersex). This is where people are born with hormones, chromosomes, anatomy or other
characteristics that are neither exclusively male nor female. They are usually assigned a sex (male or
female) by their family or doctor at birth as birth certificates require the sex of the child – either male or
female. Individuals with variations in sex characteristics might identify as male, female, or intersex, and
they may consider themselves to be a man, a woman, or to have a non-binary identity.

Transgender
Transgender or trans is an umbrella term for people whose gender identity is different from the sex
assigned at birth. The Equality Act 2010 contains the protected characteristic of gender reassignment,
which is defined as follows:

“A person has the protected characteristic of gender reassignment if the person is proposing to
undergo, is undergoing or has undergone a process (or part of a process) for the purpose of reassigning
the person's sex by changing physiological or other attributes of sex.”

This definition covers a wide range of people at varying stages of transition. A person does not need to
have legally changed their gender to be included within the definition of the protected characteristic,
nor do they need to have had any kind of surgery. The protection extends to anyone who has been
treated less favourably because of gender reassignment, regardless of whether they have that
characteristic or not.

Many trans people go through a process called transitioning: changing how people see them and the
way they look to align with their gender identity. It can involve changing characteristics, appearance,
names and pronouns, and may include medical treatment, such as hormone therapy or surgery. Some
people may not go on to have surgical procedures, but just have the “lived experience” in the gender
they identify as. Definitions and terms are very personal; people who have transitioned do not
necessarily identify their gender as trans. They may see their gender identity as a man or woman, or
have different preferences and words to describe themselves (for more information, see Trans Data
Position Paper).

Transitioning can also involve legally changing gender under the Gender Recognition Act 2004, which
allows trans people to obtain a new birth certificate showing their new name and sex. It is important to
note that the law in the UK treats the terms sex and gender as interchangeable. This is shown by the
Gender Recognition Act allowing someone who is changing their gender to change the sex marker on
their birth certificate.The term trans is often grouped with sexual identity and orientation (for example,
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT)), however, it is independent of who you are attracted to
and should be considered as separate.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): gender and sex

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a universal set of goals, underpinned by targets and
indicators. They seek to eradicate inequalities, ensuring that no one is left behind. Office for National
Statistics (ONS) is the focal point of UK data for the global SDG indicators.

The data used to report on the indicators are often collected by other organisations (such as the NHS
and government departments) and may not match SDG requirements. Most data collected captures
those who are male or female only, and in some cases is labelled sex and some cases gender. There are
very few organisations that collect data on gender identity. For more information, please see the
Equalities data audit.

In the SDGs, the goals and targets tend to refer to gender, for example, “Goal 5: Gender equality” and
“Target 4.a: Build and upgrade education facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and
provide safe, non-violent, inclusive and effective learning environments for all”. However, indicators
refer to sex, for example, “Indicator 5.b.1: Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone, by
sex” and “Indicator 8.5.2: Unemployment rate, by sex, age and persons with disabilities”. This makes it
complex in understanding what data are required and what information needs to be collected.

The main principle of the SDGs is to “leave no one behind”. To meet this, each of these indicators are to
be broken down, where relevant, by eight characteristics required by the United Nations (UN). In
paragraph 74.g of Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, they state
the disaggregations are: income, sex, age, race, ethnicity, migration status, disability and geographic
location, and other characteristics relevant in national contexts. However, in paragraph 17.18 they state
gender instead of sex (the other disaggregations are the same).

The terms sex and gender appear to be used interchangeably. The “other characteristics” outlined in the
Agenda relate to human rights and international laws, and include sexual orientation and gender
identity. This suggests that measuring both sex and gender is important to ensure that no one is left
behind. However, the Equality and Human Rights Commission indicates there may be a concern when it
comes to reporting, especially when data are disaggregated. Even where data on gender identity are
collected accurately, the amount of data may be so small that disclosure control means the data cannot
be provided.
Househusband
Man who does housekeeping usually while his spouse or partner earns the family income

Househusband man whose main occupation is running or managing the family's home

A man who considers himself married and manages the household as his main occupation and whose
spouse/partner usually earns the family income. Often looking after the children because the wife earns
a better living.

In the world where there’s a change in traditional gender roles, it is unsurprising to find house husbands
while the wife is the one who goes to work to earn money. Nowadays, men have minimal hesitation
about leaving their careers to stay at home with their kids. They prove to be just as capable of running
errands, keep the house in order and be a childcarer. What makes it different, however, is that they
have to practice to be like their wives.

Are you wondering where the male ego is resting? Testosterone levels have no place where
unemployment and the towering cost of childcare are, especially if the wife has a better job.What makes
it hard for stay-at-home husbands is the negative stereotype they face. To everyone else, the first thing
that pops up when they hear of such a man is an image of a shameless guy who cannot get his act
together.Hopefully, people will start finding the change as the new normal, and wives will not feel
shame when they fend for their homes because it is not a bad thing after all.

11 Awesome Benefits Of Having Stay-At-Home Husbands

1. It Is Money-Saving. -. Unsurprisingly, economic hurdles are the major reasons why a hubby may
choose to be the home-maker. Therefore, when you have him at home taking care of the children, you
might significantly cut expenses that cover services such as daycare, commuting, and lunches while
saving on gas and parking fees.

2. He Becomes More Appreciative - There is no doubting the fact that you only feel it when you are in it.
And a stay at home hubby knows this too well since he spent his past days thinking that there's nothing
hard to stay at home and do a few dishes.He will no longer take motherhood for granted when he
spends his time figuring out how to play every role he can in the house.

3. Tighter Parental Bond - While mothers naturally bond with their kids immediately after conception,
fathers have to create that bond physically. Some never get such an opportunity when they stay too far
away from home.However, men get to impact the emotional and social development of their children
by playing more than a secondary role. It enables them to experience their children’s important
milestones and spend quality time with them.
4. You Have A Support System - You can always count on a man who can gladly cook, clean, and allow
you to walk into a delicious dinner on the table. Such a man can gladly support and take care of you as
you do your best to be a super-star at work. And since everyone knows how a shoulder to lean on is very
important after a long day at work, count on having someone to rub your feet, and listen to you as you
spout on how you hate that your boss is on your neck. You can have all that if you have your spouse
taking care of your home.

5. Safety For The Kids Demanding jobs require parents to trust strangers to take care of the kids. Such an
act exposes children to danger and accidents from strangers such as day-cares workers and
nannies.However, having someone you share family values with a stay at home and take care of the
children alleviates the stress of worrying if your kid is safe and well-taken care.

6. He Can Find Other Cash-Milling Means - After he finishes with the children and the house chores, he
can use the remaining time to find online jobs, write, or blog and bring additional income to the family.

7. You Can Concentrate On Building Your Career - You can build your business brand, and take your
career to higher levels without having the kids on your neck because they are with their father.It will
also allow you to spend quality time with your kid after work instead of doing the chores that your
hubby took care of.

8. Discourages Over-Spending - Full-time mothers are the worst spendthrifts and hoarders ever.
However, men are more likely to spend wisely and balance budgets effectively. You can, therefore, have
someone to help you manage your finances while taking care of you as well.

9. Strengthens Marital Bond - If you make your spouse comfortable with his new role, he’ll gladly take
care of the family, and trust you with the finances. Role swapping allows couples to respect each other
because they get to understand the responsibilities and pressures of each other’s traditional roles.

10. They Do Chores Better - Playing a full-time dad enables him to master excellent culinary skills and
allow him to be a better cleaner. Surprisingly, they become way better than women when they commit
to their activities.

11. You Have Enough Time For Yourself - Weekends and evenings are never the same when you get kids.
Full-time motherhood demands that you be there for your children all the time. However, when you
have their father taking care of them, you can get enough time to have your own time, hang out with
friends, and grow individually.
What is child marriage?
Child marriage is a marriage or union in which one or both spouses are under 18 years old. Although this
definition sounds straightforward, the realities of child marriage can be complicated. Both the words
“child” and “marriage” are sometimes interpreted differently.

The internationally recognized definition of a child – established by the Convention on the Rights of the
Child (CRC), one of the most universally endorsed and widely ratified treaties in history – is “every
human being below the age of 18 years”. This is also the legal definition used in most parts of the world.

But in a small number of countries, adulthood, or the “age of majority” may be reached before age 18.
(The CRC makes an exception for national laws recognizing an earlier age of majority.) Some countries
and cultures consider adulthood a state achieved upon marriage – for example, countries where full age
means the age of 18 years and above, and any married woman is deemed to be of full age, even if she is
under 18. And other countries have an older minimum age of marriage, such as Nepal, where the law
requires both men and women be at least 20 when they marry.

The concept of marriage also varies – it can be formal or informal, governed by civil law, common law or
religious law, or simply be a customary practice. In many parts of the world, for example, marriages may
be recognized by the community without legal registration, marked simply with a ceremony. In
countries where polygamous marriage is not permitted by civil law, second and third marriages often
take place without formal registration.

Major surveys try to account for this variation when measuring child marriage. Multiple Indicators
Cluster Surveys and Demographic and Health Surveys, for example, collect information on the date and
age at which women and men were married or first started living with their first spouses or partners.

Regardless of these varying definitions, child marriage is a serious human rights violation that directly
threatens lives, health, safety and education of girls and boys, limiting their future prospects.

Why does child marriage happen?

It can be hard to imagine why someone would choose to have their child married off. But for millions of
people, child marriage can seem like the best – or only – option.

Daughters are frequently seen as burdens or commodities because of pervasive gender inequality.
Impoverished parents often believe marriage will secure a daughter’s future by making a husband or his
family responsible for her care. This may be the case when parents face economic hardships or when
girls are forced by poverty or circumstance to drop out of school. In places where the bride’s family pays
a dowry to the groom’s family, younger brides typically command smaller dowries, creating an incentive
for parents to marry their daughters off early. In places where the groom’s family pays a bride price,
parents in difficult circumstances may marry off their daughters as a source of income.
Parents – especially in humanitarian crises – often view marriage as a way to protect their daughters
from sexual violence. Child marriage rates have been known to increase during the chaos of war, as
families endure both economic instability and fear of violence. Yet child marriage itself leads to girls
experiencing high levels of sexual, physical and emotional violence from their intimate partners.

Although most adolescent pregnancies in the developing world take place among girls who are already
married, in some places, teenage pregnancy – or even the possibility of teenage pregnancy – prompts
parents to marry off their daughters. This is seen in both wealthy and poor countries where
communities consider pregnancy outside of marriage to be shameful. Girls may even be forced to marry
rapists to spare their families the stigma associated with unmarried pregnancy.

And not all child marriages are the result of parents’ or guardians’ decisions. Often, adolescents
themselves decide to marry or enter an informal union living with their partner, whether a peer or an
older individual. These marriages may be a way to exercise independence, leave home or escape difficult
circumstances, including desperate poverty or family violence. Restrictions on adolescent sexuality
outside of marriage also drive some adolescents to see marriage as the only way to be sexually active.In
most cases, child marriage is the result of girls and families having few choices. Overwhelmingly, when
young people have a choice, they marry later.

How common is child marriage?

Child marriage is actually very common.

More than 650 million women and girls alive today were married before their 18th birthday. Nineteen
per cent of women between the ages of 20 and 24 around the world were child brides. And while child
marriage is most prevalent in low- and middle-income countries, it also takes place in high-income
countries.

There is good news: global child marriage rates are slowly falling. Around 2000, one in three women
between the ages of 20 and 24 reported they had been married as children. In 2021, this number was
just under one in five. Rates of child marriage before age 15 also fell, from 11 per cent in 2000 to 5 per
cent in 2021.

Still, progress has been uneven and child marriage is not declining fast enough. Because of population
growth in regions where child marriage is more prevalent such as West and Central Africa, the rate of
decline is slow and the total number of child marriages is projected to increase by 2030. COVID-19 has
also set back efforts and exacerbated pressures on families thus leading to projected increases in child
marriage. To change this, we must accelerate our actions to end the practice.

South Asia has seen dramatic declines in child marriage over the last decade, and now the global burden
of child marriage is shifting to sub-Saharan Africa. Of the most recently married child brides, close to one
in three are now in sub-Saharan Africa, compared to one in five a decade ago. While sub-Saharan Africa
still has some of the highest rates of child marriage, South Asia is home to the largest numbers of child
brides.
Where does child marriage happen?

Child marriage takes place all over the world.

It even happens in developed countries – including the United States and United Kingdom. Many people
assume that when child marriage takes place in affluent countries, it only involves immigrant
communities. This is not the case. Child marriage is known to take place across a wide range of
communities, ethnicities and religions.

Still, child marriage is much more common in the developing world because one of the main driving
factors is poverty.

The highest rates of child marriage are seen in West and Central Africa, where over four in ten girls were
married before age 18. In terms of sheer numbers, South Asia is home to the largest numbers of child
brides.

How old are the children involved in child marriages?

Children can be married off at any age. The most common ages at which children are married are 16 and
17.

Marriages that take place before age 15 are considered “very early marriages.” These marriages have a
particularly negative impact on girls, interrupting their education earlier and jeopardizing their health
more acutely. Research by UNFPA shows that child marriage rates increase gradually until age 14 and
accelerate significantly thereafter at ages 15 through 17. The majority of child marriage thus occurs in
middle adolescence.

In circumstances where parents are under enormous pressure to marry off their daughters – for those
living in extreme poverty or in conflict settings, for instance – marriages have been reported among girls
around 11 or 12 because girls are seen both as being ready for marriage and at risk of sexual violence.

In some cases, children are as young as five when they are married, although this is rare. Extremely
young brides and grooms are sometimes married in ceremony only but live with their parents until they
reach adolescence.

What is the difference between child marriage, early marriage and forced marriage?

People occasionally refer to the term “child, early and forced marriage.” This creates the impression that
these terms are distinct. In fact, they are overlapping.

Child marriage and early marriage largely refer to the same thing: marriages in which one or both
spouses are under 18 years old. However, early marriage is also sometimes used to describe marriages
in which one or both spouses are 18 or older, but with a compromised ability to grant consent. For
example, the marriage of a 19-year-old who is not physically or emotionally mature, or who does not
have sufficient information about her choices, would be considered an early marriage.
Forced marriage is a marriage in which one or both spouses do not give full and free consent, regardless
of age. Forced marriage can also refer to a union in which one or both spouses are unable to end or
leave the marriage .Because in most countries children are not considered able to give legal consent, all
child marriages are sometimes considered forced marriages. However, there are many instances of two
adolescents under the age of 18 marrying each other voluntarily, called “love marriages” in some
contexts.

Boxer Codex
The Boxer Codex is a late-16th-century Spanish manuscript produced in the Philippines. It contains 75
colored illustrations of the peoples of China, the Philippines, Java, the Moluccas, the Ladrones, and Siam.
About 270 pages of Spanish text describe these places, their inhabitants and customs. An additional 88
smaller drawings show mythological deities and demons, and both real and mythological birds and
animals copied from popular Chinese texts and books in circulation at the time.

The English historian Charles Ralph Boxer purchased the manuscript in 1947 from the collection of Lord
Ilchester in London. Boxer recognized the importance of what he called the "Manila Manuscript" and
published a paper in 1950 with a detailed description of the codex. He made the manuscript freely
available to other researchers for study, and it became known as the Boxer Codex. Boxer eventually sold
it to Indiana University, where it is held by the Lilly Library.

The Boxer Codex depicts the Tagalogs, Visayans, Zambals, Cagayanes or possibly Ibanags, and Negritos
of the Philippines in vivid color. The paintings' technique and the use of Chinese paper, ink, and paints
suggests that the artist may have been Chinese.

It is believed that the original owner of the manuscript was Luis Pérez Dasmariñas, son of Governor
General Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas, the Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines. Luis succeeded his
father in office as governor-general. Since Spanish colonial governors kept extensive written reports of
the territories they governed, it is likely that the manuscript was written on the governor's orders.

The manuscript's earliest known modern owner was Lord Ilchester. The codex was among what
remained in his collection when his estate, Holland House in London, was bombed on September 27,
1940, during the Blitz. It was auctioned in 1947 and came into the possession of Charles Ralph Boxer, an
authority on the Far East, and whom it is named. It is now owned by the Lilly Library at Indiana
University.
REFUGEES CRISIS

In 2022, we exceeded 30 million refugees around the world — an escalation of what was already the
highest number of refugees on record. Based on UNHCR data, here are the 10 largest refugee crises and
situations to follow in 2023.

In the past decade, the global refugee crisis has more than doubled in scope. In 2022, the UNHCR
announced that we had surpassed the 100 million mark for total displacement, meaning that over 1.2%
of the global population have been forced to leave their homes. Among these people are over 32.5
million refugees. 76% of those refugees come from just six countries.

Before we look at the world’s largest refugee crises in 2023, a quick note that we’re focusing specifically
on refugees and counting them by country of origin for this listing. For more on that distinction, check
out our breakdown of refugees versus IDPs — and all of the other classifications for forced migration.

Since 2013, Concern has responded to this crisis, both locally in Syria, and with refugee communities in
Türkiye and Lebanon. In 2019, we also began operating in Iraq.

The number of Syrians displaced within their own country matches the number of refugees, with
conflicts driving over 6.6 million people from their homes and forcing them to resettle. 2.98 million still
remain in hard-to-reach and besieged areas.

1. Syria

Over 25% of the total global refugee population are part of the global diaspora in the wake of the 10-
year Syrian crisis. As of late 2022, 6.8 million Syrians have sought refuge, primarily in Lebanon, Jordan,
Iraq, Egypt, and Türkiye (which is currently the largest host community for refugees). In Lebanon, there
are no formal camps, which leaves its population of over 1 million Syrians living across 2,000
communities, often overcrowded temporary shelters.

2. Ukraine

In February 2022, escalated conflict in Ukraine led to a full humanitarian crisis, including 5.4 million
refugees. Over 16% of the current global refugee population is Ukrainian. This exceeded the UNHCR's
initial estimate that 4 million Ukrainians — nearly 10% of the country's population — would be
displaced as a result of conflict.

Concern began working in Ukraine in 2022, shortly after the beginning of the conflict. After initially
working in bordering host communities like Poland and Romania, we switched operations to Ukraine
itself where we determined humanitarian need to be greatest.
3. Afghanistan

The ongoing humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan consistently makes it one of the top countries of origin
for refugees. Roughly 1 in 10 — that is, 2.8 million — refugees are Afghan by birth. More than 88% of
Afghan refugees are hosted in neighbouring Pakistan and Iran.For those Afghans still living in their home
country, almost two-thirds are in areas that are directly affected by conflict. This conflict prompts
ongoing internal displacement. The problem is compounded by the limited capacity of communities,
governments, and humanitarian actors to withstand the impact of repeated natural disasters including
floods, landslides, earthquakes, and drought.

Concern has been in Afghanistan for over 20 years and recently became the UN’s chosen partner for the
emergency response to displacement in the northeastern part of the country.

4. South Sudan

The world’s youngest nation is also the site of one of its largest refugee crises, one that entered its tenth
year last month. Over 4 million South Sudanese have been forced from their homes, with 2.3 million of
those having to leave the country entirely. Concern has been in South Sudan since it gained
independence in 2011 and works to address the ongoing humanitarian needs and the pressure
generated by widespread displacement. In addition to working with the nearly 2 million internally
displaced South Sudanese (many of whom live in Protection of Civilian Sites), we also have a presence in
many of the host communities for South Sudanese refugees, including Sudan, Ethiopia, Kenya, and the
DRC.

5. The Rohingya crisis

Beginning in August 2017, over 1.1 million stateless Rohingya fled ongoing violence in Myanmar’s
Rakhine State. Many are still living in the world’s largest refugee camp, located in nearby Cox’s Bazar,
Bangladesh. Together with UN agencies, over 130 local, national, and international nonprofits (including
Concern) have supported the Government of Bangladesh to adjust to this increase in capacity. Safety
and security remain serious concerns for the Rohingya living in Cox's Bazar, where their informal housing
is often destroyed in seasonal floods and fires. Concern has been in Bangladesh for nearly the entire
span of our more than 50-year history. This has helped us to respond quickly and agilely to the influx of
refugees in Cox’s Bazar, where we continue to work.

6. Democratic Republic of Congo

The Democratic Republic of Congo remains one of the world’s largest “forgotten” humanitarian crises,
with events in a protracted situation rarely making headlines. Combining refugees and IDPs, its
displacement numbers are the highest in Africa. This includes over 909,000 refugees — an increase of
45,000 compared to last year. In tandem with this, the DRC is also a large host community for refugees
from neighbouring countries.Concern has been responding to the DRC crisis for over 25 years, with
emergency response among our top priorities. We work in partnership with the UNICEF RRMP (Rapid
Response to Population Movement), the country’s largest emergency response programme.
7. Sudan

In Sudan — as with many countries on this list — we can see one of the complications of the current
refugee crisis at large: While Sudan is the fifth-largest country of asylum for refugees (including the
largest population of refugees from South Sudan), it’s also a country that’s producing an increasing
number of refugees — over 844,000 as of December 2022, and roughly a 40,000 increase since last year.

Concern has been in Sudan for 35 years. We also work to support the areas of Sudan that function as
host communities for the 1.1 million foreign refugees living in the country.

8. Somalia

The good news is that the number of Somali refugees around the world has declined a bit in recent
years. At the end of 2017, there were over 986,000 refugees. While the numbers went up a bit in 2022,
at just over 799,000 it’s still a significant decrease compared to five years ago.

However, the situation is nevertheless dire for many. For the last several decades, a cycle of crisis in
Somalia has been fuelled by drought, conflict, and hunger. The country is at the epicentre of the current
Horn of Africa crisis, which could lead to a new famine being declared in the region. Even if it doesn’t,
the UN still estimates that the effects could be similar to the country’s 2011 famine.

Concern has been in Somalia for over 35 years, as well as neighbouring countries that serve as some of
the largest host communities to Somali refugees. One key programme that we run for both refugees and
internally-displaced Somalis is our Cash Consortium, giving people the autonomy and dignity of being
able to prioritise their own financial needs with cash transfers. We’ve distributed more than $16 million
to over 300,000 people since the launch of the programme.

9. Central African Republic

The humanitarian crisis in the Central African Republic reached its tenth anniversary in 2022, a period
marked by bouts of sectarian violence that have displaced over 1 million people. That includes nearly
738,000 refugees. This escalation in violence (which has been ongoing since CAR gained independence
from France in 1960) has made it increasingly dangerous for Central Africans to live in the country —
and for humanitarian organisations to work there. Concern has been operational in CAR since 2014, with
the main goals of providing humanitarian assistance and building the resilience of communities affected
by ongoing conflict. In recent years, however, we have been forced to periodically suspend our work due
to safety issues.

10. Eritrea

In 2022, Eritrea crossed the threshold of 501,000 refugees, meaning that nearly 14% of the country’s
population have been displaced due to violence and political instability.
Racial justice
The systematic fair treatment of people of all races, resulting in equitable opportunities and outcomes
for all. Racial justice — or racial equity — goes beyond “anti-racism.” It is not just the absence of
discrimination and inequities, but also the presence of deliberate systems and supports to achieve and
sustain racial equity through proactive and preventative measures.

Racism — Historically rooted system of power hierarchies based on race — infused in our institutions,
policies and culture — that benefits white people and hurts people of color. Racism isn’t limited to
individual acts of prejudice, either deliberate or accidental. Rather, the most damaging racism is built
into systems and institutions that shape our lives. Most coverage of race and racism is not “systemically
aware,” meaning that it either focuses on racism at the level of an individuals’ speech or actions,
individual-level racism, dismisses systemic racism, or refers to racism in the past tense.

Racist — Describes a person, behavior, or incident that perpetuates racism. Stories of race and racism
that focus on personal prejudice (“who’s a racist?”) get a disproportionate share of attention in the
media. This reinforces the message that racism is primarily a phenomenon of overt, intentional acts
carried out by prejudiced individuals who need correcting and/or shaming, and tends to spark debates
of limited value about that individual’s character. It is important for media and racial justice advocates
to use a systemic lens on race-related stories and topics to examine systems, institutional practices,
policies, and outcomes.

“Reverse racism” — A concept based on a misunderstanding of what racism is, often used to accuse
and attack efforts made to rectify systemic injustices. Every individual can be prejudiced and biased at
one time or another about various people and behaviors, but racism is based on power and systematic
oppression. Individual prejudice and systemic racism cannot be equated. Even though some people of
color hold powerful positions, white people overwhelmingly hold the most systemic power. The concept
of “reverse racism” ignores structural racism, which permeates all dimensions of our society, routinely
advantaging white people and disadvantaging people of color. It is deeply entrenched and in no danger
of being dismantled or “reversed” any time soon.

Stereotype — Characteristics ascribed to a person or groups of people based on generalization and

oversimplification that may result in stigmatization and discrimination. Even so-called positive
stereotypes (e.g., Asians as “model minorities”) can be harmful due to their limiting nature.

Systemic analysis — A comprehensive examination of the root causes and mechanisms at play that
result in patterns. It involves looking beyond individual speech, acts, and practices to the larger
structures — organizations, institutions, traditions, and systems of knowledge.
White supremacy — A form of racism centered upon the belief that white people are superior to
people of other racial backgrounds and that whites should politically, economically, and socially
dominate non-whites. While often associated with violence perpetrated by the KKK and other white
supremacist groups, it also describes a political ideology and systemic oppression that perpetuates and
maintains the social, political, historical and/or industrial white domination.

White Supremacy Culture — Characteristics of white supremacy that manifest in organizational

culture, and are used as norms and standards without being proactively named or chosen by the full
group. The characteristics are damaging to both people of color and white people in that they elevate
the values, preferences, and experiences of one racial group above all others. Organizations that are led
by people of color or have a majority of people of color can also demonstrate characteristics of white
supremacy culture.

Income gap
An income gap is a gap in income between one group and another. Looked at in terms of the whole
economy, the commonest income gap is that between ‘rich’ and ‘poor’, with the ‘rich’ usually being
defined at the top 20% of income earners (the top quintile), and the poor the bottom 20% (bottom
quintile.) However, it is possible to look at the income gap between many groups, such as males and
females, urban and rural dwellers, and between people living in different regions of a country.

Absolute income gap

An absolute income gap refers to the difference between different groups in terms of actual income.

In terms of the UK, though income going to all groups is rising, it is clear that the richest 20% have
increased their income by a much greater amount than the poorest 20%.

The gap between rich and poor in 1997, expressed as a ratio was roughly 3/1 (£21,000 compared with
£7,000.) By 2006, this ratio had increased to around 5.5/1. (£55,000 compared with £10,000). By 2015,
this ratio had fallen to 5/1, with average incomes of £62,500 before taxes and benefits for the top 20%,
and that of the bottom £16,500 for the lowest 20%.

Relative income gap

A relative income gap refers to the difference between groups in terms of the share of total income
going to different groups.

The relative position of the middle three quintiles remained constant between 1977 and 2006, while the
position of the poorest 20% worsened. The only group to have increased their share of total income was
the top 20%.
What Is the Income Gap?

Our incomes, the money we receive as compensation for the paid work we do, varies according to
several factors. The type of job we do, the amount of training and experience we have, the resources of
our employers and the extent to which we negotiate our salary can all affect our income. But so can
factors like race and gender. Let’s take a closer look at the income gap in America.

Income Gap Basics

In broad strokes, the income gap is the difference between the rich and the poor. In U.S. political
discourse, income inequality is often expressed as the gap between the 1% and the 99%. Between the
end of WWII and the 1970s, the middle class grew and the income gap did not widen because Americans
in the working, middle and upper classes were all reaping economic gains. But beginning in the 1970s,
the gap between rich and poor began to widen.

According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP), in the 1970s “income growth for
households in the middle and lower parts of the distribution slowed sharply, while incomes at the top
continued to grow strongly.” The CBPP found that, between 1979 and 2013, the percentage increase in
the 1%’s average after-tax income was “five times larger than that of the middle 60 percent and four
times larger than that of the bottom fifth.” CBPP research found that, before taxes and transfers, the 1%
claimed 17% of all income in the U.S. in 2013. After taxes and transfers, that share shrank to 12% – still
high for such a narrow slice of the population. It’s important to note that the wealth gap is even wider
than the income gap, but because incomes are easier to tax the income gap often gets more traction in
political discussions.

The Racial Income Gap

In terms of both wealth and income, black Americans are at a sizable disadvantage relative to white
Americans. In 2014, the median income for white households was $71,300, much higher than the
$43,300 median income for black households. The gap persists among those with a college degree, too,
so having a BA is not enough to allow black Americans to shrink the racial income gap.

The legacy of slavery, Jim Crow, segregation and discrimination in housing, education and more is visible
in the racial income gap. Unemployment rates are consistently higher for black workers than for white
workers. The wealth gap is even greater than the income gap, in part because of racially biased policies
that led to more white families boosting their net worth through homeownership.