General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1(Part 1)W1A

 Phases of Matter

Gases, liquids, and solids are made up of representative particles (atoms, molecules, and
ions), but those particles' behaviors differ within the three phases.

 Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT): The thought that particles of matter are
always in motion, which this motion has significant effects.

1. A theory developed within the late 19th century to account for the behavior of the
atoms and molecules that structure matter.
2. It supported the thought that particles of matter are always in motion, which has
consequences.
3. It is often used to describe the properties of solids, liquids, and gases in terms of
particles' energy and the forces that act between them.

 Three Assumptions of KMT:

1. All matter (solid, liquid, gas) is formed of particles (atoms, ions, molecules).
2. Particles are in continuous motion, which shows the movement of electrons.
• Gas particles travel in a completely random motion.
• Liquid particles appear to move around moving points.
• Solid particles appear to move around fixed points.

3. Collisions are perfectly elastic (no change within the entire Kinetic Energy of two
particles before and after their collision) ; No loss of energy!

Kinetic energy (K.E.) is the energy of motion.

It depends on the MASS of the thing and its VELOCITY (SPEED)

 Temperature = measure of K.E. (how fast molecules travel)

  Temperature is directly proportional with K.E.
When the temperature decreases, the particle speed also decreases. (i.e., a decrease
in kinetic energy)
When the temperature increases, the particle speed rises too. (i.e., a rise in KE)

Kelvin (K) = temperature

scale used in Kinetic study
⇒ Absolute Zero
temperature in which
all molecular motion
stops
= (0 K or - 273◦C)

Conversion between ◦C

and K: K = ◦C + 273 or
◦C= K-273

Kinetic Theory Description of the Liquid State

According to the kinetic theory of gases, liquid particles' motion is often described as a
kind of matter that features a definite volume and takes the form of its container.

1. Particles in a liquid are in constant motion; however, the particles in a liquid are closer
together than those in a gas.
2. Therefore, the attractive forces between particles in a liquid are stronger than those
between particles in a gas.
3. This attraction is caused by intermolecular forces.
4. According to the kinetic-molecular theory of liquids, the particles aren't bound together in
fixed positions.

Kinetic-Theory Description of the Solid State

According to the kinetic theory, solid particles' motion is often described as lower K.E., less
motion, more packed particles, and stronger intermolecular forces (IMF).
1. Intermolecular forces between particles are therefore far more effective in solids.

2. These hold particles of a solid in relatively fixed positions, with only vibrational movement.

3. Solids are more ordered than liquids and gases.

Property Liquids Solids

Volume/Shape Definite volume but indefinite Definite volume and shape -solids
shape- can't expand to fill a maintain a particular shape without
container a container; Volume is constant
because of closely packed particles
Fluidity Fluid-ability to flow and take Non-fluid- solid particles can’t
the form of the container flow because they are held in
relatively fixed positions
Density Relative high density- close High density- solids are packed
arrangement of particles more closely than that of a liquid or
(compared to a gas) making gas.
mass/volume ratio higher
Compressibility Much less compressible Incompressible - particles are
than gases because particles packed so close together there’s
are closer together. virtually no space between them.
Diffusibility Slower diffusion than gases- Slow diffusion – much slower than
mix with other liquids due liquids due to the high IMF’s
to the constant motion of between particles
particles
Motion of Random motion, medium Vibration in place
Molecules speed, limited distances

General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1B

 Intermolecular forces
- attractive forces that hold molecules together, and influence their melting and
boiling point.

- weaker forces because they result from smaller charges, or partial charges, interacting
over much larger distances. The stronger the intermolecular forces between the
molecules of a liquid, the greater is the energy required to separate the molecules to
turn into gas with à higher boiling point. Decreasing the temperature decreases the
kinetic energy of the particles. Increasing the pressure squeezes them closer together.
 - play large roles in determining the physical properties of liquids. Solids have relatively
stronger intermolecular forces than liquids do. The stronger the IMFs in the sample of
molecules, the stronger they interact, which means they stick together more.

____ ______

BOND: Between
ATOMS INTERMOLECULAR FORCE:
Between Molecules

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction:

1. Dispersion Force (London Force)

The intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of electrons and the
creation of instantaneous dipoles are called Dispersion Force or London Force.

This intermolecular force was named after Fritz London, who first proposed its
existence in 1930. Dispersion forces act between all atoms and molecules. But they are the
only intermolecular forces acting among noble–gas atoms and nonpolar molecules. This
fact is reflected in the low boiling points of the noble gases and nonpolar molecular compounds.

London forces are dependent on the motion of electrons, their strength increases with
the number of electrons in the interacting atoms or molecules. In other words, it increases with
increasing atomic mass or molar mass.

It is the weakest of all intermolecular forces, since the bigger the number of
electrons, the more it diffused the electron cloud in the atom or molecule, the greater its
polarisability.

Polarisability of the atom or molecule refers to the ease with which the electron distribution can
be distorted.
2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (Van Der Waals Attraction)

A dipole is created by equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short distance. This
force of attraction was named after a Dutch Physicist Johannes Dedirek Van der Waals, who in
1873 first postulated these intermolecular forces in developing a theory to account for the properties of
real gases.

The direction of a dipole is from the dipole’s positive pole to its negative pole. A dipole is
represented by an arrow with a head pointing toward the negative pole and a crossed tail situated at the
positive pole. The dipole created by a hydrogen chloride molecule, which has its negative end at the
more electronegative chlorine atom, is indicated as follows.

The negative region in one polar molecule attracts the positive region in adjacent molecules,
and so on throughout a liquid or solid. The forces of attraction between polar molecules are known as
dipole-dipole forces. In this force, the larger the dipole moment, the stronger the attraction. A molecule of
water, for example, has two hydrogen-bonded with one oxygen in which the more electronegative
oxygen atom is the negative pole of each bond.

3.Hydrogen bonding

Some hydrogen-containing compounds, such as hydrogen fluoride (HF), water (H 2O),

and ammonia (NH3), have usually high boiling points. This is explained by the presence of
a particularly strong type of dipole-dipole force. In compounds containing H-F, H-O, or H-
N bonds, the large electronegativity differences between hydrogen and fluorine, oxygen,
and nitrogen atoms make the bonds connecting them highly polar. It is usually represented
by dotted lines connecting the hydrogen-bonded to the unshared electron pair of the
electronegative atom to which it is attracted as illustrated for hydrogen fluoride (HF).

Types of Intermolecular Forces and Relatives Strengths:

 Dispersion (London force) Weakest
 Dipole-Dipole
 Hydrogen bonding Strongest
 Genchem, Quarter 3, Week 1C
Properties of Liquid:
1. Surface tension

A property of the surface of a liquid that permits it to resist an external force because
of the cohesive nature of the water molecules. It is manifested as some kind of skin on the
surface of a liquid or during a drop of liquid. It is the force that causes the molecules
on the surface of a liquid to “tighten their hold to at least one another”, creating the
effect of a skinny membrane on the surface. The molecules occupy the smallest
amount area possible, which pulls the surface into a spherical shape when a little
amount is dropped. High surface tensions are existing to substances with strong
attractive forces between the molecules. Surface tension is temperature-dependent;
it increases as temperature decreases. Therefore, surface tension is indirectly
proportional to temperature.

2. Viscosity

A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Polar molecules and molecules with

complex structures (with “branches”) tend to possess higher viscosity being less ready
to slip and slide over each other than those with simple structures and less polarity. A
liquid with high viscosity is claimed to be viscous or simply “thick”. When the
viscosity is so high that it cannot flow any more, the matter is claimed to be glassy or
vitreous. The opposite of viscosity is fluidity. Highly fluid is said to be free-flowing,
mobile, or “thin”. Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise.

Fluid is a gas or a liquid; a substance that will flow.

3. Vapor pressure of a liquid

The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid is the pressure exerted by the
vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed container. This may be considered as a
measure of the “escaping” tendency of molecules to go from the liquid to the vapor state.
When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, the space above the liquid becomes
saturated with vapor and an equilibrium state exists between the liquid and therefore the
vapor. The equilibrium equation is:

evaporation
liquid vapor
condensation
Vapor is a gaseous substance that occurs naturally as liquid or solid at
normal temperature.

4. Boiling point

The temperature at which a liquid boils wherein the vapor pressure of a liquid is
equal to the external pressure (atmospheric pressure above the liquid). The normal
boiling point of a liquid is reached when the external pressure is 1 atm.

5. Molar heat of vaporization (ΔH vap)

It is the energy (usually in kilojoules) needed to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a

certain temperature. The attractive forces between the liquid molecules are overcome
during vaporization. Only when all of the liquid has become a gas will the
temperature of the substance again increase as more heat is added. H is the
symbol for enthalpy, which suggests total heat at a given standard condition.

Vaporization is the change of phase of matter from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase).

6. Vapor pressure of a liquid

The equilibrium pressure of a vapor above its liquid is the pressure exerted by the
vapor above the surface of the liquid in a closed container. This may be considered as a
measure of the “escaping” tendency of molecules to go from the liquid to the vapor state.
When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, the space above the liquid becomes
saturated with vapor and an equilibrium state exists between the liquid and therefore the
vapor. The equilibrium equation is:

evaporation
liquid vapor
condensation

Vapor is a gaseous substance that occurs naturally as liquid or solid at

normal temperature.

7. Boiling point

The temperature at which a liquid boils wherein the vapor pressure of a liquid is
equal to the external pressure (atmospheric pressure above the liquid). The normal
boiling point of a liquid is reached when the external pressure is 1 atm.
 8. Molar heat of vaporization (ΔH vap)

It is the energy (usually in kilojoules) needed to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a

certain temperature. The attractive forces between the liquid molecules are overcome
during vaporization. Only when all of the liquid has become a gas will the
temperature of the substance again increase as more heat is added. H is the
symbol for enthalpy, which suggests total heat at a given standard condition.

Vaporization is the change of phase of matter from liquid to vapor (gaseous phase)
 WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY
SHEET
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1D

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF WATER

The water molecule ( figure 1) is composed of two (2) hydrogen (H) atoms and one (1) oxygen
(O) atom. The oxygen atom has 8 electrons, and each hydrogen atom has 1 electron. The
covalent bond is formed when atoms of hydrogen share electrons with an oxygen atom.

Water (H2O) molecule is polar with strong intermolecular forces. It forms a special
dipole bond called a hydrogen bond. Four hydrogen bonds can be formed in a water
molecule (figure 2). These bonds are strong, however, it is constantly breaking, shifting and re-
forming giving the water its unusual properties.

PROPERTIES OF WATER
 Surface Tension Molecules at
the surface
Water molecules attract with other water form strong
bonds
molecules forming a bond that creates an elastic
film on the surface of water resulting to surface
tension. Surface tension allows the surface of the
water to support weights and pull water droplets
into round
shapes.

 Capillary Action

Intermolecular forces also cause a polar liquid like water to rise against gravity into a
small- diameter tube (a capillary), as shown in figure 7. This is also because the molecules of
water are attracted to the substance in the tube (figure 8). This phenomenon is called
capillary action. When a glass tube is placed in water, the water rises into the tube. Water rises
higher in a tube with a smaller diameter.
 Viscosity

Water has a viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20 oC. Polar water is more viscous
than nonpolar liquids like liquid nitrogen. But compared to long-chain molecules, water is
less viscous.
 Vapor Pressure of Water
The vapor pressure of water refers to the pressure at which equilibrium occurs between
the gaseous phase and the liquid phase of water molecules, in a closed container. In this
condition vapor pressure is constant. Water has low vapor pressure because of the high
surface tension.

In an open container, equilibrium would not be reached because the molecules in

the gaseous phase will just fly off and some gas molecules will change to the liquid
phase.

 Molar Heat of Vaporization and Boiling Point

Water at the boiling point has a molar heat of vaporization equal to

40.7 kJ/mol. This means that 40.7 kJ of heat is absorbed from the surroundings as 1 mol of
water at 100°C and 1 atm pressure is converted to 1 mol of water vapor at 100°C.

 Other Properties of Water

1. Universal Solvent

Water is a universal solvent. Water has a unique ability to dissolve many chemical
substances. It can dissolve salts and other ionic compounds, polar covalent compounds like
alcohols, and gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide. Nutrients needed by plants are
dissolved in water and are absorbed by plants. Water can also absorb pollutants from
farming and industrial plants resulting in water pollution.

2. Specific Heat

Water has high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to increase

the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 oC. Water has a very high specific heat

with 1 calorie/g-oC (4.18 J/g-oC). This is the reason that water can absorb a greater amount
of heat even the temperature rises very slightly.

For example, at the beach on a sunny day, we observe that the sand is usually quite hot
to walk on. The water on the other hand always feels cool. This is due to the fact that the
sand has a lower specific heat capacity compared with water. The sand takes less energy to
raise the temperature by one degree while water with a high heat capacity, requires more heat
 energy to increase its temperature by one degree. The sun heats sand more quickly but the
water more slowly.

3. Boiling Point

The boiling point of water is unusually high. Water boils at 100 oC. Due to
intermolecular forces, the water stays to be in a liquid state at a large range of temperatures.
During summer days, a pond does not dry quickly because the amount of energy required to
evaporate the water is so high.

4. Density

Solid water is less dense and floats on liquid water. The molecules in solid water are
different than they are in liquid water. In solid water, the hydrogen bonds have an open
structure with unoccupied spaces, resulting in a larger volume. This makes solid water or
ice becomes less dense causing ice to float on water. In temperate countries, water bodies
freeze. Ice will float, causing the aquatic organisms to still live and survive under the
surface which remains liquid

General Chemistry 2, Quarter 3, Week 1E

Solids
- characterized by a rigid structure of molecules, ions, and atoms arranged in an orderly or non-
orderly manner. These orderly or non-orderly arrangements led to the categorization of
crystalline and amorphous solids, the two general types of solids.

Figure 2 AFigure 2 B

Figure 1. Molecules of Solid

Crystalline Solids
Crystalline solids are the type of solids that have particles that are orderly arranged
 in a 3-dimensional pattern called the crystal lattice (a regular repeating structure). When
cut anywhere, it shows a clear cleavage in the structure. For its internal structure, it has a
distinct geometric shape.

In a 3-dimensional pattern, the particles have equal intermolecular forces. This solid
has a sharp melting point and is anisotropic (property of a material which allows it to
change or assume different properties in different directions). They are called true solids.
To detect the difference between a crystalline and non-crystalline solid is not easy,
especially by only touching it. Both solids are holding a definite and fixed shape, rigid, firm,
and incompressible. Also, both generally have geometric shapes and flat faces but differ
from each other in many aspects including the chemical and the physical attributes or
properties.

Amorphous Solids
The word amorphous is a Greek word that means “shapeless”. Irregular and
disordered arrangement of the constituent particles of a solid. Structures are rigid and they
lack a well- defined shape.

Amorphous solids do not have a geometric shape so, they are non-crystalline. Those
variations in characteristics of an amorphous solid occur due to the arrangement of its
molecules. Here, the particles of matter which is a 3-dimensional lattice structure that we
see in other solids do not form. Some amorphous solids have impurities, it prevents such a
structure forming edged-like crystals and it has a short order arrangement of molecules.

In amorphous solids, their intermolecular forces are not the same, nor are the
distances between the particles. Some can have parts of orderly arranged patterns
which are called crystallites. The molecules, ions, or atoms of the solid depend on its
cooling process. As aforementioned, quartz crystal differs from quartz glass because of the
process of crystallization. In general, many amorphous solids have a disordered pattern.
They are also usually called the super-cooled solids; the structure shares some properties
with liquids. Also, amorphous solids do not show the true properties of solids or pseudo
solids.

Key differences between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

A. Structure of Crystalline and Amorphous
Crystalline solid has a definite shape with orderly arranged molecules or atoms in 3-
dimensional patterns often termed as a crystal lattice. If this solid will cut, it depicts a clear
cleavage with surfaces intersecting at angles that are characteristic of the crystal.
Amorphous solids, on the other hand, have a disordered array of components not showing
a definite shape. They show irregular shapes usually with curved surfaces when cut.

B. Melting points of Crystalline and Amorphous

Having an irregular shape, amorphous solid does not have definite melting points but melt
over a wide range of temperatures. For crystalline solids, melting points are keenly
observed or have a sharp melting point.

C. Physical properties of Crystalline and Amorphous

For crystalline solids, they are called anisotropic. Because it possesses different thermal
conductivity, electrical conductivity, and refractive index within a crystal in different
directions. Amorphous are called isotropic. These solids have similar physical properties
from either direction.