WEEK 1 - ELECTRIC CHARGE

ELECTRIC CHARGE – We can trace all electrical effects to electrons and protons inside every atom. This is
because these particles have a property called electric charge. The electrons are negative and surround a
dense, positive nucleus. Positive protons and neutrons reside in this nucleus Neutrons are neutral and do
not participate in electrostatic interactions.

Just like mass, the charge is a fundamental property of subatomic particles. The smallest amount of charge
is called the elementary charge, indicated universally by the symbol e. The elementary charge has a
magnitude of

Unit C stands for coulomb, named after French physicist Charles Agustin Coulomb.
An atom normally contains the same number of electrons and protons, so the overall negative charge is
just balanced by the overall positive charge. The resulting charge is zero, and thus, the atom is neutral. And
just like mass, the charge is conserved. This means that charges are neither created nor destroyed. There is
the same amount of charge in the universe now as there has always been.
CONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR
In certain materials such as aluminium, copper, and other metals the outermost or valence electrons are
free to move around the entire material. Such materials are classified as conductors.
In other materials, such as glass and wood, the electrons are more tightly bound to the atom that they do
not easily move around. These materials are Insulators.

Note: Good conductors are poor insulators; poor conductors are good insulators. Most metals are
conductors while most non-metals are insulators.
In a conductor, the outermost electrons are farther away from the nucleus than they are more weakly
bound to it. When atoms of a conductor form a bulk material, their outer electrons are no longer bound to
the atoms but are free to float over the material. These are called free electrons. When energy is applied
to these electrons, they can move in a more organized way, producing an electric current. Free electrons
can also be moved from one material to another in a process called charging. Removing an electron from
an atom creates a positive ion.
CHARGING
In general, a material can be given a net charge by adding or removing an electron. There are several ways
of doing this:
1. USING FRICTION – By rubbing things together, electrons can peel off one material and remain in the
other. When you walk, your shoes lose a little bit of material to the ground. Electrons can be transferred in
this way.
A rubber rod is charged by rubbing it on a fur cloth. In the process, the cloth loses its electrons to the rod
resulting in both the rod and the cloth being charged. The same happens when you comb your hair.
In rubbing the wool cloth on a rubber rod, the rod acquires a negative charge. The wool cloth becomes
positively charge.
2. BY TOUCHING - When a charged object comes into contact with another object, electrons are
transferred, thereby charging the second object.

Imagine you have an uncharged metal sphere from an insulated stand. We bring a negatively charged
rubber rod to the ball, and by simply touching it, electrons from the rod transfer to the ball. Now the ball
and the rod are both negatively charged so they repel each other. This is also called charging by
conduction.
3. BY INDUCTION – In this method, there is no actual contact between the charged object and that which is
being charged. In this way, the object does not lose its charge to the object that gets charged in the
process.

COULOMB’S LAW
After discussing electric charges, we saw that like charges repel unlike charges attract. This suggests the
presence of an electrostatic force. This force is either a force of attraction between a positive and a
negative charge or a force of repulsion between two like charges. Electrostatic force holds the atom
together. The positive nucleus attracts the negative electrons around it in a similar way that the Earth and
the other planets are held in orbit around the Sun by gravity.
And this is not where the similarity ends. Recall that the force of gravity between two masses ml and is
given by the equation:

In which G is the gravitational constant and r is the distance between the centers of the masses. The
electrostatic force between two charges QI and Q2 is given by a very similar equation. The magnitude of
the electrostatic force Fe is:

Substitute the constants needed to get the value of k, we get approximately value of:
DIRECTION OF ELECTROSTATIC
The calculation we made in Example Problem # 3 does not tell us in any way whether the force is directed
toward the north, south, west, or east. The only way to find out is to sketch the problem out.
Let us assume that we are given a positive charge Q1 and a negative charge Q2, separated by a distance r
on a horizontal line. We already know that the force between them is attractive. Also, the attraction is
mutual. This means that Q1 pulls on Q2, and at the same time, Q2 also pulls on Q1 with the same amount
(or magnitude) of force. This implies that there are two forces present.
Opposite charges attract each other (negative to positive). Like charges repel each other (positive to
positive or negative to negative).
THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
Electrostatic force, being a vector, can be added just like other forces. In the previous example, Q3 is
simultaneously attracted by two charges. The result is that Q3 experiences the combined effect of the two
attractive forces, which we can calculate using vector addition. This is the superposition principle. We can
state the superposition principle
The net electrostatic force on a charged particle is equal to the vector sum of the electrostatic force exerted
by each point charge on that particle.
THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
Electrostatic force, being a vector, can be added just like other forces. In the previous example, Q3 is
simultaneously attracted by two charges. The result is that Q3 experiences the combined effect of the two
attractive forces, which we can calculate using vector addition. This is the superposition principle. We can
state the superposition principle
The net electrostatic force on a charged particle is equal to the vector sum of the electrostatic force exerted
by each point charge on that particle.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Why does a rock fall to the ground? One way to explain this is to say that there is a downward force acting
on the rock, its weight, or the pull of gravity on the rock. Another way to explain this is to say that there is
a gravitational field (a force field) that surrounds the Earth.
Similarly, there are two ways to explain why a charged particle may either be attracted or repelled by
another charge. We already discussed the electrostatic forces that charges apply to other charges. An
alternative way to explain these interactions is to say that there is a force field around every charge.
The electric field can either be attractive or repulsive.

What will be the magnitude of the electric field due to a system of point charges?
Like electrostatic forces, electric fields are vectors. Any charge has its electric field resulting from the vector
sum of each charge's electric field as we did for the force, we can add electric field vectors using any vector
addition method to arrive at the net electric field at a point.
GENERALIZATION: The charge (magnitude) of an electron and a proton is called the elementary charge e. It
is a fundamental constant equal to 1.6 x 10-19 C. It is a conserved quantity. Conductors are materials with
free electrons that can carry electrical energy. The material can be charged by transferring charge carriers
from one object to another. This can be achieved either by rubbing, by conduction, or by induction.
Coulomb's law describes the force between two point charges. It states that the electrostatic force
between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The electrostatic force may be attractive
(between unlike charges) or repulsive (between like charges). In symbols, Coulomb's law is:
The superposition principle states that the net electrostatic force is the vector sum of the forces exerted by
individual charges. It also applies to electric fields. Electric field E is the ratio of the electrostatic force
acting on a unit of charge. Using Coulomb's law, we can calculate the electric field by:

This is the electric field at a point r away from a charge Q. The electric field of a positive charge points away
from it; the electric field of a negative charge points toward it.

WEEK 2 - ELECTRIC FLUX

We all know that electric fields are important in many areas of physics, and are exploited practically in
electrical technology. In atomic physics and chemistry, the electric field is used to model the attractive
force holding the atomic nucleus and electrons together in atoms. In addition, electric fields are being
measured through electric flux in a given surface. Meaning to say, electric flux is the number of electric
field lines passing through a certain area.
Fig.1. Shows the illustration of an electric field lines passing through a thin sheet with different angles in an
open surface.

Electric flux can be mathematically expressed as;

In electric flux we have discussed electric field lines passing through an open surface but, as we all know
electric field lines emanate or meet from a source charge or point charge. That source charge can be
hypothetically imagined to be enclosed by a closed surface. The relationship now of the electric field lines
and electric charge can be interpreted by Gauss’s Law.
Gauss’s Law
The law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not published until 1867. Gauss’s law can
be used to derive Coulomb’s law, and vice versa. Note that since Coulomb’s law only applies to stationary
charges, there is no reason to expect Gauss’s law to hold for moving charges based on this derivation
alone. In fact, Gauss’s law does hold for moving charges, and in this respect Gauss’s law is more general
than Coulomb’s law.
Fig.2. Shows the illustration of an electric field lines passing through a closed or Gaussian surface.
In words, Gauss’s law states that: The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within that closed surface. It can be expressed
mathematically as;

As we have understood fully the electric field lines and its relationship to charges we are now going to ask
ourselves how to make the charges itself move from one specific point to another. Going back from the
lessons in General Physics 1, work is required to move an object of mass from one point to another what
could be its equivalence in moving a charge? It is what we call the electric potential.
Electric Potential – is the amount of work energy needed to move a unit of electric charge from a reference
point to the specific point in an electric field with negligible acceleration of the test charge to avoid
producing kinetic energy or radiation by test charge. But, how is electric potential related to work? Here’s
how!
Fig.3. Equivalence of electric potential to work, electric field and electric potential energy

Explanation: Mechanical energy as discussed in Mechanics are forms of energy that are involved in the
movement of an object from one specific point to another but as charges do not involve mass, electric
fields and charges will be the relevant quantities in computing the needed energy in moving a charge from
one point to another and you call that electric potential energy.
In addition, electric potential decreases as you move farther from a charge distribution. First, think about
more familiar gravitational potential energy. If you take an object sitting on a table, and do work on it by
lifting it away from the earth, you increase the gravitational potential energy. In the same way, as you do
work on a charge to move it closer to another charge of the same sign, you increase the electric potential
energy. That's because like charges repel each other, so it takes more and more energy to move the
charges together the closer you get. Therefore, it is important to remember that electric potential and
electric potential energy are two different things. Electric potential is the amount of potential energy per
unit charge.
Electric potential can be expressed mathematically as;

We have defined electric potential as electric potential energy per charge. Potential energy was defined as
the capacity, of an object to do work, possessed by the object because of its position in space. The
electric potential energy of a charged particle depends on a characteristic of itself, and a characteristic of
the point in space at which it finds itself. We exploit the fact that if you know the electric potential
throughout a region in space, you can use that knowledge to determine the electric field in that region of
space. Our purpose is to help you develop your ability to determine the electric potential, as a function of
position, in the vicinity of a charge distribution—in particular, in the vicinity of a continuous charge
distribution. Let’s kick things off by doing a review problem involving a discrete distribution of charge.
Generalization: In summary, the study of electric field lines opens up new understanding of charges. The
measurement of electric field lines through electric flux can be determined using the equation which
assumes that the electric field lines passes through the normal line in perpendicular to an open specific
area. The equation measures electric field lines at an angle to the normal line. For the further
understanding of the relationship of charge and electric field lines, Gauss’s Law determined their
relationship stating that “The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface is proportional
to the total electric charge enclosed within that closed surface.”
As we need to draw parallels between mass and electricity, the movement of a mass from one point to
another which involves work, force and distance can be substituted by electric potential and distance.
Electric potential measures the amount of energy needed to move a Coulomb of charge from one point to
another. With the electric potential and distance, work can be measured by the product of electric
potential (V and d) where in, it can also be called electric potential energy.

WEEK 3: CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

Capacitance is a property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors, that is measured by the amount of
separated electric charge that can be stored on it per unit change in electrical potential. Capacitance also
implies an associated storage of electrical energy. If electric charge is transferred between two initially
uncharged conductors, both become equally charged, one positively, the other negatively, and a potential
difference is established between them. The capacitance C is the ratio of the amount of charge q on either
conductor to the potential difference V between the conductors, or can be mathematically expressed as;
Capacitance in electric circuits is deliberately introduced by a device called a capacitor. A capacitor, also
called a condenser, is thus essentially a sandwich of two plates of conducting material separated by an
insulating material, or dielectric. Its primary function is to store electrical energy. Capacitors differ in the
size and geometrical arrangement of the plates and in the kind of dielectric material used. The following
are kinds of capacitors that vary in shape and size
Parallel- plate Capacitor

The simplest example of a capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area, which are parallel to each
other, and separated by a distance d.
Cylindrical Capacitor

Consider next a solid cylindrical conductor of radius a surrounded by a coaxial cylindrical shell of inner
radius b. The length of both cylinders is L and we take this length to be much larger than b− a, the
separation of the cylinders, so that edge effects can be neglected. The capacitor is charged so that the
inner cylinder has charge +Q while the outer shell has a charge –Q.
Spherical Capacitor

As a third example, let’s consider a spherical capacitor which consists of two concentric spherical shells of
radii a and b. The inner shell has a charge +Q uniformly distributed over its surface, and the outer shell an
equal but opposite charge –Q.
Since the dawn of civilization, we have sought to represent the thing that we saw and the ideas we have
imagined through drawings and symbols. From prehistoric caricatures of animals on cave wall, our
symbolic representation has evolved to the extent that it connected arts, religion and even science. Since
then, symbols have been an integral part to the study of everything. In electromagnetism, we have learned
how we are powered by electrical current. But how are we going to represent as simple as possible the
system behind it? The answer is through the use of symbols and schematic diagrams. Given below are the
symbols that you might encounter under schematic diagram of electric circuit.

Schematic diagrams can be used to draw any circuit, from the small series circuit you just created to the
complicated circuits found in houses and schools. They use different symbols to represent the different
parts of the circuit, such as the battery, bulb, or wire. Schematic diagrams can be understood by anyone
who knows about them-they are like a circuit language.
A path through which electrical current can flow is called a circuit. An example of some simple circuits can
be seen below. Essentially circuits work in the following way. A power source will pump electrons from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal at a faster rate, then a device connected to the power source
can drain the electrons. The electrical energy provided will continue as long as the power source does not
stop. In the case of the circuits below, chemical reactions within the battery pumps electrons from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal faster than the light bulb connected to the battery can drain
them. The battery continues to supply the required amount of current to light the light bulbs until the
chemicals within the battery are used up. Once the chemical reactions cease to occur the battery is dead
and must be replaced.

We have seen how a capacitor interacts and affects an electrical circuit but it is presented in the most basic
type of circuit. We have to deal with the fact that circuits can be presented in such a way that it represents
how it is made in our homes and other establishments. That is why we are going to present capacitors in
both series and parallel circuit.
1. Capacitors in series – A series circuit is a circuit in which the components (e.g. lights) are connected in
line with one another and the wire. In other words, a series circuit contains components that all share the
same wire. A series circuit does not contain any three or more wire junctions.
Figure 1. (a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is Q. (b) An
equivalent capacitor has a larger plate separation d. Series connections produce a total capacitance that is
less than that of any of the individual capacitors. It can be mathematically expressed as;

2. Capacitors in Parallel – An illustration on the side shows a parallel connection of three capacitors with a
voltage applied. Here, the total capacitance is easier to find than in the series case. To find the equivalent
total capacitance Cp, we first note that the voltage across each capacitor is V, the same as that of the
source, since they are connected directly to it through a conductor. Conductors are equipotential, and so
the voltage across the capacitors is the same as that across the voltage source.) Thus the capacitors have
the same charges on them as they would have if connected individually to the voltage source. The total
charge Q is the sum of the individual charges: Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3.
It can be mathematical expressed as;

Generalization: Capacitance is a property of an electric conductor, or set of conductors, that is measured

by the amount of separated electric charge that can be stored on it per unit change in electrical potential.
Capacitance also implies an associated storage of electrical energy. If electric charge is transferred
between two initially uncharged conductors, both become equally charged, one positively, the other
negatively, and a potential difference is established between them. The capacitance C is the ratio of the
amount of charge q on either conductor to the potential difference V between the conductors.
Schematic diagrams can be used to draw any circuit, from the small series circuit you just created to the
complicated circuits found in houses and schools. They use different symbols to represent the different
parts of the circuit, such as the battery, bulb, or wire. Schematic diagrams can be understood by anyone
who knows about them-they are like a circuit language.
A path through which electrical current can flow is called a circuit. Essentially circuits work in the following
way. A power source will pump electrons from the positive terminal to the negative terminal at a faster
rate, then a device connected to the power source can drain the electrons. The electrical energy provided
will continue as long as the power source does not stop. In the case of the circuits below, chemical
reactions within the battery pumps electrons from the positive terminal to the negative terminal faster
than the light bulb connected to the battery can drain them. The battery continues to supply the required
amount of current to light the light bulbs until the chemicals within the battery are used up. Once the
chemical reactions cease to occur the battery is dead and must be replaced. Capacitors are seen in two
types of electrical circuits, first, a capacitor in series. Second, a capacitor in parallel.

WEEK 4: CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

Electrical wires are a staple sight beside roads. We know that these are our connection to modern
civilization and ease of living. But what is the idea behind the establishment of electrical cords and wires?
That idea is the concept called current. Using the word current in this context is to simply use it to say that
something is happening in the wires - charge is moving. Yet current is a physical quantity that can be
measured and expressed numerically. As a physical quantity, current is the rate at which charge flows past
a point on a circuit. As depicted in the diagram below, the current in a circuit can be determined if the
quantity of charge Q passing through a cross section of a wire in a time t can be measured. The current is
simply the ratio of the quantity of charge and time.

Current is a rate quantity. In every case of a rate quantity, the mathematical equation involves some
quantity over time. Thus, current as a rate quantity would be expressed mathematically as:

Where: I represent the current that is measured in A or Ampere

Q represent the charge that is measured in C or Coulomb
t represents the time that is measured in s or second
Note: Ampere is often shortened to Amp and is abbreviated by the unit symbol A. A current of 1 ampere
means that there is 1 coulomb of charge passing through a cross section of a wire every 1 second.
To further understand the concept of current, let us determine the current for the following two situations.
Note that some extraneous information is given in each situation.

In this concept there are two things that is commonly misinterpreted and confused with their meanings, it
is the conventional current and the electron flow. The diagram below shows their difference into each
other.

We have always wanted to move with the reality that we aim to receive the perks of being with the masses
and move with everybody. But in everything we do, there is something that always resist us to do that. In
connection to physics, even electron in a current experience this barrier we call resistance. So what is
resistance?
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is measured in
ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-1854), a
German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
All materials resist current flow to some degree. They fall into one of two broad categories:
Conductors: Materials that offer very little resistance where electrons can move easily. Examples: silver,
copper, gold and aluminum.
Insulators: Materials that present high resistance and restrict the flow of electrons. Examples: Rubber,
paper, glass, wood and plastics resistance measurements are normally taken to indicate the condition of a
component or a circuit.
The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If abnormally high, one possible cause could be
damaged conductors due to burning or corrosion. All conductors give off some degree of heat, so
overheating is an issue often associated with resistance. The lower the resistance, the higher the current
flow. Possible causes: insulators damaged by moisture or overheating.
In addition, resistance is directly proportional with temperature. The more these atoms and molecules
bounce around, the harder it is for the electrons to get by. Thus, resistance generally increases with
temperature. For small temperature changes the resistivity varies linearly with temperature: r = ro (1 + a
DT), where a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Take note that, resistance differs from resistivity.
Resistivity is a measure of the resistance of a given size of a specific material to electrical conduction.
Resistivity may also be referred to as the specific electrical resistance, or volume resistivity, although these
terms are less widely used. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current.
Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ. It is mathematically expressed as:
Always remember that the value of resistivity depends also on the temperature of the material;
tabulations of resistivities usually list values at 20° C. Resistivity of metallic conductors generally increases
with a rise in temperature; but resistivity of semiconductors, such as carbon and silicon, generally
decreases with temperature rise. Furthermore, the electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be
greater for a longer wire, less for a wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend
upon the material out of which the wire is made (resistivity). Generally speaking "Resistance" may sound
negative, but in electricity it can be used beneficially.
On the other hand, conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity, and it, too, characterizes materials on the
basis of how well electric current flows in them. The metre-kilogram-second unit of conductivity is mho per
metre, or ampere per volt-metre. Good electrical conductors have high conductivities and low resistivities.
Good insulators, or dielectrics, have high resistivities and low conductivities. Semiconductors have
intermediate values of both. Conductivity is mathematically expressed as:

In simple words, we can say that electrical conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct electricity.
Conductivity is important because some substance requires to conduct electricity and some are not. For
example, the wire conductors need to let current flow as easily as possible. While, some other materials
required to restrict the flow of the current, as in the case of the resistor. On the other hand, some other
materials are required not to conduct electricity as in the case of the insulators.
In the previous lesson, we discussed the concept of electrical potential difference or voltage, you did know
that voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that pushes charged electrons through
a conducting loop, enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light. We also knew that if there is
something going through a wire or if charge is moving there is current. More so, we also defined resistance
as the opposition of a current flow. The voltage, current and resistance is somewhat comparable to our
lives. Obstacles (resistance) impede our movement to achieve our goals. But someone or something
(voltage) like your family or your own determination will push you (current) to reach them. Just like in the
illustration given.
The relationship between voltage, current and resistance was further studied by Georg Simon Ohm a
German physicist and mathematician. As a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new
electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation,
Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential differences (voltage) applied across
a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship is known as Ohm's law.
OHM’S LAW
Is a law in electricity. It is the strength of a direct current is directly proportional to the potential difference
and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount
of electric current through a metal conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed
across it, for any given temperature. Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation,
describing how voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:

In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by resistance (R). Using algebra
techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two variations, solving for I and for R, respectively:

Analyzing Simple Circuits with Ohm’s Law. Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze
simple circuits:

In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and only one source of
resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy to apply Ohm’s Law. If we know the
values of any two of the three quantities (voltage, current, and resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm’s
Law to determine the third.
Ohm’s Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing electric circuits. It is used so often in the study of
electricity and electronics that it needs to be committed to memory by the serious student. For those who
are not yet comfortable with algebra, there’s a trick to remembering how to solve for anyone quantity,
given the other two.
First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:
Eventually, you’ll have to be familiar with algebra to seriously study electricity and electronics, but this tip
can make your first calculations a little easier to remember. If you are comfortable with algebra, all you
need to do is commit V=IR to memory and derive the other two formulae from that when you need them!
There are two materials or conductors that should be considered under Ohm’s Law. It is the ohmic and
non-ohmic materials. The diagram below will show you their difference.
Nature have always relied in the balance of everything. Energy will be trasferred if this would not be
achieved. Electrons, though how small they are, are subject to this principle. A force will be needed to
achieve the gap for neutrality. As it is continually achieved, less and less energy is needed to balance all
out. The greatest example of this is our battery operated devices which is called Electromotive force or
EMF. The electromotive force is the total voltage induce by the source. In other words, it is the amount of
energy supplied by the source to each coulomb of charge. It is measured in volts and represented by the
symbol ε (epsilon).

The emf is the maximum voltage that can be attained by the circuit. Naturally, it is generated when the
fluctuation occurs in the magnetic field. The emf is expressed by the formula shown below.
The electromotive force might have a similarity with the electric potential difference. Therefore, presented
below are the key differences between Electromotive Force and Potential Difference.

Take Note: Despite its name, electromotive force is not actually a force.
Before ending this discussion, there are some reminders given by the Occupational Safety and Health
Applications (OSHA) regarding electrical safety.
Like a current, we are really to endure the most painful and hardest thing to continue living in this God
forsaken world. But always remember, that we are not living to please anybody therefore, continue to
flow, focus on your own path and be determined to achieve your goals. Let your perspective be your
own.
GENERALIZATION: Current is a rate quantity. In every case of a rate quantity, the mathematical equation
involves some quantity over time. There are three quantities under current, first is the current itself that is
in unit Ampere or A. Second is the charge that is in unit Coulomb or C, and lastly, is time that is in unit of
seconds or s. Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is
measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm
(1784-1854), a German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
Resistivity is a measure of the resistance of a given size of a specific material to electrical conduction.
Resistivity may also be referred to as the specific electrical resistance, or volume resistivity, although these
terms are less widely used. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current.
Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ. Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity, and
it, too, characterizes materials on the basis of how well electric current flows in them.
Ohm’s Law is a law in electricity that refers to the strength of a direct current. It is directly proportional to
the potential difference and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. The electromotive force
is the total voltage induce by the source. In other words, it is the amount of energy supplied by the source
to each coulomb of charge.

WEEK 5 - RESISTOR IN SERIES AND PARALLEL, KIRCHHOFF'S RULE AND RC CIRCUIT

This week, brace yourself as we deal with electric circuits and quantities that we can directly measure and
change without having to think about those invisible electrons. This week we are going to solve problems
involving resistor in series and parallel. Next, you will understand what is Kirchhoff’s rule that keeps
everything organized as we analyze and solve more complicated network. And lastly, the R-C circuit. This
week you will also how the R-C circuit works and how to solve problems involving this.
WEEK 6: MAGNETIC FIELD
Have you ever wondered how do birds know the direction to go when they are migrating for warmer days?
Or how do compasses work to lead us to better directions? It might be that you may have asked yourself in
awe, with dreams to see them one day, the great auroras of the Far North and the Wild Antarctica? All
these things are caused by none other than the magnetic field of the earth.
A magnetic field is a picture that we use as a tool to describe how the magnetic force is distributed in the
space around and within something magnetic. Most of us have some familiarity with everyday magnetic
objects and recognize that there can be forces between them. We understand that magnets have two
poles and that depending on the orientation of two magnets there can be attraction (opposite poles) or
repulsion (similar poles). We recognize that there is some region extending around a magnet where this
happens. The magnetic field describes this region.
Both electric and magnetic fields are the consequence of the attraction and repulsion of electric charges.
However, a magnetic effect is caused by moving electric charges while an electric field is caused by
stationary charges.
There are two different ways that a magnetic field is typically illustrated:
1. The magnetic field is described mathematically as a vector field. This vector field can be plotted directly
as a set of many vectors drawn on a grid. Each vector points in the direction that a compass would point
and has length dependent on the strength of the magnetic force.
A compass is nothing more than a tiny magnet suspended such that it can freely rotate in response to a
magnetic field. Like all magnets, a compass needle has a north pole and a south pole that are attracted and
repelled by the poles of other magnets. When the compass is placed in a strong magnetic field, the forces
of attraction and repulsion turn the needle until it is aligned with the direction of the field.
Figure 1: Vector field plot for a bar magnet.

Arranging many small compasses in a grid pattern and placing the grid in a magnetic field illustrates this
technique. The only difference here is that a compass doesn't indicate the strength of a field.
2. An alternative way to represent the information contained within a vector field is with the use of field
lines. Here we dispense with the grid pattern and connect the vectors with smooth lines. We can draw as
many lines as we want.
Figure 2: Field line plot for a bar magnet
The field-line description has some useful properties:
1. Magnetic field lines never cross.
2. Magnetic field lines naturally bunch together in regions where the magnetic field is the strongest. This
means that the density of field line indicates the strength of the field.
3. Magnetic field lines don't start or stop anywhere, they always make closed loops and will continue inside
a magnetic material (though sometimes they are not drawn this way).

We require a way to indicate the direction of the field. This is usually done by drawing arrowheads along
the lines. Sometimes arrowheads are not drawn and the direction must be indicated in some other way.
For historical reasons the convention is to label one region 'north' and another 'south' and draw field lines
only from these 'poles'. The field is assumed to follow the lines from north to south. 'N' and 'S' labels are
usually placed on the ends of a magnetic field source, although strictly this is arbitrary and there is nothing
special about these locations.
Field lines can be visualized quite easily in the real world. This is commonly done with iron filings dropped
on a surface near something magnetic. Each filing behaves like a tiny magnet with a north and South Pole.
The filings naturally separate from each other because similar poles repel each other. The result is a
pattern that resembles field lines. While the general pattern will always be the same, the exact position
and density of lines of filings depends on how the filings happened to fall, their size and magnetic
properties.
Magnetic fields may be represented mathematically by quantities called vectors that have direction as well
as magnitude. Two different vectors are in use to represent a magnetic field: one called magnetic flux
density, or magnetic induction, is symbolized by B; the other, called the magnetic field strength, or
magnetic field intensity, is symbolized by H. The magnetic field H might be thought of as the magnetic field
produced by the flow of current in wires and the magnetic field B as the total magnetic field including also
the contribution made by the magnetic properties of the materials in the field.
We have always heard the word electromagnetic. This comes into mind as we are thinking how does a
magnet have any relation to electricity? How are they intertwined with one another?
Looking at an electron, the basic unit particle for electricity, not only is electric force acting upon it but also
a magnetic force. This would be much explained in the discussion of what the resulting Lorentz Force is.
Lorentz force is the force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity v through an electric field E
and magnetic field B. The entire electromagnetic force F on the charged particle is called the Lorentz force
after the Dutch physicist Hendrik A. Lorentz and is given by
F = qE + qv × B
The first term is contributed by the electric field. The second term is the magnetic force and has a direction
perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field. The magnetic force is proportional to q and to
the magnitude of the vector cross product v × B.
In terms of the angle ϕ between v and B, the magnitude of the force equals
F= qvB sin ϕ.
An interesting result of the Lorentz force is the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. If v
is perpendicular to B the particle will follow a circular trajectory with a radius of
r = mv/qB
If the angle ϕ is less than 90°, the particle orbit will be a helix with an axis parallel to the field lines. If ϕ is
zero, there will be no magnetic force on the particle, which will continue to move not deflected along the
field lines. Charged particle accelerators like cyclotrons make use of the fact that particles move in a
circular orbit when v and B are at right angles. For each revolution, a carefully timed electric field gives the
particles additional kinetic energy, which makes them travel in increasingly larger orbits. When the
particles have acquired the desired energy, they are extracted and used in a number of different ways,
from studies of subatomic particles to the medical treatment of cancer.

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator in which charged particles accelerate outwards from the center
along a spiral path. The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by
a rapidly varying radio frequency electric field.
Cyclotrons accelerate charged particle beams using a high frequency alternating voltage which is applied
between two “D”-shaped electrodes (also called “dees”). An additional static magnetic field is applied in
perpendicular direction to the electrode plane, enabling particles to re-encounter the accelerating voltage
many times at the same phase. To achieve this, the voltage frequency must match the particle’s cyclotron
resonance frequency,

with the relativistic mass m and its charge q. This frequency is given by equality of centripetal force and
magnetic Lorentz force. The particles, injected near the center of the magnetic field, increase their kinetic
energy only when recirculating through the gap between the electrodes; thus they travel outwards along a
spiral path. Their radius will increase until the particles hit a target at the perimeter of the vacuum
chamber, or leave the cyclotron using a beam tube, enabling their use. The particles accelerated by the
cyclotron can be used in particle therapy to treat some types of cancer. Additionally, cyclotrons are a good
source of high-energy beams for nuclear physics experiments.
A charged particle experiences a force when moving through a magnetic field. What happens if this field is
uniform over the motion of the charged particle? What path does the particle follow? In this section, we
discuss the circular motion of the charged particle as well as other motion that results from a charged
particle entering a magnetic field.
The simplest case occurs when a charged particle moves perpendicular to a uniform B-field (Figure 1). If
the field is in a vacuum, the magnetic field is the dominant factor determining the motion. Since the
magnetic force is perpendicular to the direction of travel, a charged particle follows a curved path in a
magnetic field. The particle continues to follow this curved path until it forms a complete circle. Another
way to look at this is that the magnetic force is always perpendicular to velocity, so that it does no work on
the charged particle. The particle’s kinetic energy and speed thus remain constant. The direction of motion
is affected but not the speed.
Figure 2. A charged particle moving with a velocity not in the same direction as the magnetic field. The
velocity component perpendicular to the magnetic field creates circular motion, whereas the component of
the velocity parallel to the field moves the particle along a straight line. The pitch is the horizontal distance
between two consecutive circles. The resulting motion is helical.
While the charged particle travels in a helical path, it may enter a region where the magnetic field is not
uniform. In particular, suppose a particle travels from a region of strong magnetic field to a region of
weaker field, then back to a region of stronger field. The particle may reflect back before entering the
stronger magnetic field region. This is similar to a wave on a string traveling from a very light, thin string to
a hard wall and reflecting backward. If the reflection happens at both ends, the particle is trapped in a so-
called magnetic bottle.
Trapped particles in magnetic fields are found in the Van Allen radiation belts around Earth, which are part
of Earth’s magnetic field. These belts were discovered by James Van Allen while trying to measure the flux
of cosmic rays on Earth (high-energy particles that come from outside the solar system) to see whether this
was similar to the flux measured on Earth. Van Allen found that due to the contribution of particles
trapped in Earth’s magnetic field, the flux was much higher on Earth than in outer space. Aurorae, like the
famous aurora borealis (northern lights) in the Northern Hemisphere, are beautiful displays of light emitted
as ions recombine with electrons entering the atmosphere as they spiral along magnetic field lines. (The
ions are primarily oxygen and nitrogen atoms that are initially ionized by collisions with energetic particles
in Earth’s atmosphere.) Aurorae have also been observed on other planets, such as Jupiter and Saturn.

Figure 3 (a) The Van Allen radiation belts around Earth trap ions produced by cosmic rays striking Earth’s
atmosphere. (b) The magnificent spectacle of the aurora borealis, or northern lights, glows in the northern
sky above Bear Lake near Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska. Shaped by Earth’s magnetic field, this light is
produced by glowing molecules and ions of oxygen and nitrogen. (Credit b: modification of work by USAF
Senior Airman Joshua Strang)
We have discussed how magnetic forces interact with an electron. Now, let’s proceed on how magnetic
force acts on currents. In the year 1820, Hans Christian Oersted changed the way we see electric force and
magnetic force. He discovered that a magnetic needle aligns itself perpendicularly to a current-carrying
wire.

The magnetic force on a current-carrying wire is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field with
direction given by the right-hand rule.
What is the right hand rule?

The right-hand rule is a useful mnemonic for visualizing the direction of a magnetic force as given by the
Lorentz force law. The diagrams above are two of the forms used to visualize the force on a moving
positive charge. The force is in the opposite direction for a negative charge moving in the direction shown.
One fact to keep in mind is that the magnetic force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the
charge velocity, but that leaves two possibilities. The right-hand rule just helps you pin down which of the
two directions applies.
For applications to current-carrying wires, the conventional electric current direction can be substituted for
the charge velocity v in the diagram below.

REMEMBER!
Magnetism and electricity are fundamental forces that is essential in our lives. One would not exist without
the other. Like in life, we must never sacrifice a driving force in favor of the other motivations because all
they are essential.
GENERALIZATION: The field can be visualized by a set of magnetic field lines that follow the direction of the
field at each point. The lines can be constructed by measuring the strength and direction of the magnetic
field at a large number of points. Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the
direction of the local magnetic field with its magnitude proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
Connecting these arrows then forms a set of magnetic field lines. The direction of the magnetic field at any
point is parallel to the direction of nearby field lines, and the local density of field lines can be made
proportional to its strength. Magnetic field lines are like streamlines in fluid flow, in that they represent a
continuous distribution, and a different resolution would show more or fewer lines.
While the modern Maxwell's equations describe how electrically charged particles and currents or moving
charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz force law completes that picture by
describing the force acting on a moving point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic fields. The
Lorentz force law describes the effect of E and B upon a point charge, but such electromagnetic forces are
not the entire picture. Charged particles are possibly coupled to other forces, notably gravity and nuclear
forces. Thus, Maxwell's equations do not stand separate from other physical laws, but are coupled to them
via the charge and current densities. The response of a point charge to the Lorentz law is one aspect; the
generation of E and B by currents and charges is another. In real materials the Lorentz force is inadequate
to describe the collective behavior of charged particles, both in principle and as a matter of computation.
The charged particles in a material medium not only respond to the E and B fields but also generate these
fields.

WEEK 7 - BIOT-SAVART LAW

This week, you will be needing our prior discussion to study the magnetic force that a moving charge and a
wire experience when placed inside a magnetic field. We now go back to the idea that a moving charge and
a current are both sources of magnetic fields. Let us take into account these questions as we go through
our discussion. How are we going to quantify these magnetic fields? What are the factors that affecting
their magnitudes? And how to determine its direction? We will start with a moving free charge, and then
we will move on to current elements and Biot-Savart Law.

Consider a free charge q moving at a velocity v in the direction shown in the figure. It produces a magnetic
field B in the space around it that varies from point to point. At point P, the magnetic field is:

This equation gives us the magnetic field at just one point. This is not to imply that the magnetic field is
confined there. The equation predicts that the magnetic field will be continuous, just like electrostatic force
falls 0off with. As the charge moves, it surround itself with this magnetic field that gets weaker the farther
you are from the charge.

For you to understand the equation, let us apply and follow the sample problem below:
Charged particles moving in a conducting wire make up a current. So a current-carrying conductor is a
source of magnetic field. To determine the magnetic field at a point due to a current, we use the Bio-
Savart law, formulated by French physicists, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart.
The Biot-Savart Law - relates magnetic fields to the currents which are their sources. In a similar manner,
Coulomb's law relates electric fields to the point charges which are their sources. Finding the magnetic
field resulting from a current distribution involves the vector product, and is inherently a calculus problem
when the distance from the current to the field point is continuously changing.
Take a look at the wire with current I shown in the figure. We want to calculate the magnetic field
generated by the wire at point P. To do this, we imagine cutting up the wire into small pieces of length dl.
Each piece can now be treated as if it were an isolated current. The magnetic field dB of that small portion
of the wire is:
The magnetic field lines of the infinite wire are circular and centered at the wire and they are identical in
every plane perpendicular to the wire. Since the field decreases with distance from the wire, the spacing of
the field lines must increase correspondingly with distance. The direction of this magnetic field may be
found with a second form of the right-hand rule (illustrated in Figure). If you hold the wire with your right
hand so that your thumb points along the current, then your fingers wrap around the wire in the same
sense as ꓐ.

In a charged particle moving in space and a nearby point P, we took one current element and calculated
the magnetic field it contributes at different points near it. This time we will consider the total magnetic
field at a point generated by many elements of a long, straight current-carrying wire.
Just like in the previous, we take a small element of the wire dl. The point P is a distance (a) away from the
wire, perpendicular to it. The current (I) is to the right. The right triangle in the figure will be important. Let
us name its inside that is on the wire as x.
We can add up the magnetic field contributed at a point by one wire with that from a second wire. The
principle that allows us to do this is the same as the superposition principle that we used in electrostatics.
But, it is mathematically expressed as:
As life moves on like a current, you must hold on to your relationships greater as more and more. We need
relationships that would teach help us grow, relationships that would be eager to see and understand even
the smallest portion of our lives.
Generalization: In this chapter, we saw that a moving charged particle produces a magnetic field. This
connection between electricity and magnetism is exploited in electromagnetic devices, such as a computer
hard drive. In fact, it is the underlying principle behind most of the technology in modern society, including
telephones, television, computers, and the internet. We know that a current loop created a magnetic field
similar to that of a bar magnet, but what about a straight wire? We can use the Biot-Savart law to answer
all of these questions, including determining the magnetic field of a long straight wire.
The Biot-Savart law allows us to calculate magnetic field due to steady current through a small element of
wire. Since direction of magnetic field due to different current elements of an extended wire carrying
current is not unique, we need to add individual magnetic vectors to obtain resultant or net magnetic field
at a point. This method of determining the net magnetic field follows superposition principle, which says
that magnetic fields due to individual small current element are independent of each other and that the
net magnetic field at a point is obtained by vector sum of individual magnetic field vectors.