PUBLICATIONS
Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
RESEARCH ARTICLE
10.1002/2017JD027041
Key Points:
• Local similarity theory is suitable for
characterizing the standard deviations
of velocity and temperature in the
urban roughness sublayer
• Within the urban roughness sublayer,
the dependence of standard
deviations of velocity components on
the local stability varies with height
• Dependence of temperature standard
deviation on local stability remains
constant (increases) with height under
unstable (stable) conditions
Correspondence to:
J. Sun,
jnsun@nju.edu.cn
Citation:
Zou, J., Sun, J., Liu, G., Yuan, R., & Zhang, H.
(2018). Vertical variation of the effects
of atmospheric stability on turbulence
statistics within the roughness sub-
layer over real urban canopy. Journal
of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres,
123. https://doi.org/10.1002/
2017JD027041
Received 28 APR 2017
Accepted 28 JAN 2018
Accepted article online 6 FEB 2018
©2018. American Geophysical Union.
All Rights Reserved.
ZOU ET AL.
Vertical Variation of the Effects of Atmospheric Stability
on Turbulence Statistics Within the Roughness
Sublayer Over Real Urban Canopy
Jun Zou1,2, Jianning Sun1,2 , Gang Liu1 , Renmin Yuan3, and Hongsheng Zhang4
1
School of Atmospheric Sciences and Institute for Climate and Global Change Research, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China,
2
Joint International Research Laboratory of Atmospheric and Earth System Sciences, Ministry of Education, Nanjing, China,
3
School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China, 4Department of
Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing, China
Abstract Eddy correlation measurements have been carried out at six different heights above the urban
canopy in three cities of China, that is, Nanjing, Changzhou, and Suzhou. Observations at these heights
are used to evaluate the dependence of normalized standard deviations of velocity components σ i/u*l
(i = u, v, w) and temperature σ T v =T v
l on local atmospheric stability ζ (=(z  zd)/Λ), where u*l is the local
friction velocity, Tv*l is the local temperature scale, zd is the displacement height, and Λ is the local
Obukhov length. It is found that the universal functions ai(1 + bi| ζ| )1/3 and bT v jζ j1=3, in which ai, bi, and
bT v are empirical coefficients, are suitable for describing the behaviors of σ i/u*l and σ T v =T v
l , respectively.
Under neutral conditions (|ζ| < 0.05), the value of σ i/u*l (approximately equal to ai) decreases with height. On
the other hand, bi increases with height under both unstable (ζ <  0.05) and stable (ζ > 0.05) conditions,
suggesting that the thermal effect of stratification on the standard deviations of velocity components
increases with height in the urban roughness sublayer. However, the behavior of σ T v =T v
l is different from
that of σ i/u*l. bT v remains constant with height under unstable conditions but increases with height under
stable conditions. Vertical variations of these coefficients in the universal functions are consistent with the
concept of local similarity, suggesting that the turbulence behavior in the urban roughness sublayer is
different from that over the flat terrain.
1. Introduction
Urban surfaces are aerodynamically rough and inhomogeneous, which makes turbulent flows over the
urban areas more complicated. Different combinations of heights and densities of the roughness elements
result in different flow regimes like isolated flow, wake interference flow, skimming flow, and chaotic or
mixed flow (Grimmond & Oke, 1999). The urban surface layer is commonly divided into the inertial sub-
layer (ISL), in which the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory (MOST) (Monin & Obukhov, 1954) holds, and
the underlying roughness sublayer (RSL), in which the MOST is invalid due to the lack of constant-flux con-
ditions (Roth, 2000). In the urban RSL, which is defined as the layer from the ground level to the height
several times the mean roughness height, the time-averaged turbulence statistics and flux densities are
horizontally and vertically inhomogeneous (Christen et al., 2009; Feigenwinter et al., 1999; Grimmond
et al., 2004; Kastner-Klein et al., 2001; Kastner-Klein & Rotach, 2004; Louka et al., 2000; Oikawa & Meng,
1995; Rotach, 1993a, 1993b). However, observations suggest that the local similarity theory is applicable
in the urban RSL where the airflow is mechanically and thermally influenced by length scales associated
with the roughness (Roth, 2000; Zou et al., 2015). The depth of the RSL is typically 2–5 times the urban
canopy height (i.e., the mean building height) (Raupach et al., 1991; Roth, 2000). Measurements of turbu-
lence properties should be conducted within the ISL to obtain results that are fully representative of tur-
bulent fluxes over the underlying urban surface. Unfortunately, most measurements are conducted within
the urban RSL due to the difficulties to deploy instruments within the ISL (Ao et al., 2016; Roth, 2000). On
the other hand, although the mean flow in the ISL is more affected by global parameters such as the
roughness length z0 and the displacement height zd than by individual roughness elements of the under-
lying surface, the representative turbulence properties such as wind shear and turbulent fluxes in the ISL
are associated with the turbulent processes in the RSL. While accurate description of surface fluxes in
urban areas is important for numerical models, MOST is commonly used in numerical models to
1
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

estimate fluxes at the first model level for different types of surface including urban surface mainly due to
the lack of a better alternative (Grimmond et al., 2010, 2011). In order to understand the governing pro-
cesses of the exchanges of momentum, heat, and mass between the urban surface and the atmosphere
and better describe surface-atmosphere interactions in urban areas, it is necessary to know the vertical
variations of turbulent statistics and fluxes in the urban RSL.

Although many studies have investigated turbulent flows in the urban surface layer, how to describe and
model the behavior of urban winds and turbulence still remains a challenging issue in the atmospheric
boundary layer research. Roth (2000) reviewed results of the normalized standard deviations of velocity
σ i/u* (where σ i is the standard deviation of wind component (i = u, v, w), and u* is the friction velocity) in
the previous studies and found that the normalized standard deviations of all the three velocity components
are relatively constant with height at z/zH > 2.5 under neutral conditions (where z is the measurement height
and zH is the mean building height). However, it is hard to reach the same conclusion when approaching the
urban canopy top, because data from different observational sites are scattered. Lundquist et al. (2004) con-
ducted multilayer tower observations in Oklahoma City with sonic anemometers mounted at several heights
ranging from 8 to 73 m above the surface. They found that the normalized variances of the velocity compo-
nents vary with height in neutral conditions. Similar results can also be found from observations in Bubble
(Christen, 2005). Feigenwinter et al. (1999) reported that under neutral conditions, σ u/u* and σ v/u* are nearly
constant with height, whereas σ w/u* increases slightly with height in the RSL. They also found that the aver-
age profile of σ i/u* shows a clear stability dependence. For example, σ u/u* and σ v/u* decrease with height
under unstable conditions but increase with height under stable conditions, while σ w/u* generally increases
with height and the increasing rate becomes larger as the instability increases. The vertical variation of σ T v =T v

(where σ T v is the standard deviation of temperature, T v
is the turbulent temperature scale) is rarely reported in
the previous studies. Feigenwinter et al. (1999) found that the average profile of σ T v =T v
shows vertical
variations similar to those of σ u/u* and σ v/u*. It is still not clear how the standard deviations of velocity and
temperature vary with height in the urban RSL. This problem should be investigated further based on more
observations in urban environments.

In the surface layer over flat terrains, the standard deviations of velocity and temperature are universal func-
tions of z/L (where z is the height above the ground, L is the Obukhov length) supposing the Monin-Obukhov
scaling is correct (Foken, 2008; Garratt, 1992). However, evidence shows that under unstable conditions, σ u/u*
and σ v/u* are more likely to depend on zi/L (the mixed-layer scaling, where zi is the mixed-layer height)
(Panofsky et al., 1977), implying that the horizontal turbulent motion in the surface layer over flat and homo-
geneous terrains is related to large eddies with a vertical scale of the mixed layer height. In the RSL over urban
canopies, observations suggest that the standard deviations of velocity and temperature can be character-
ized by the local stability parameter, ζ = (z  zd)/Λ, where z is the height above ground, zd is the displacement
height, and Λ is the local Obukhov length defined at z (Feigenwinter et al., 1999; Fortuniak et al., 2012; Oikawa
& Meng, 1995; Quan & Hu, 2009; Rotach, 1993b; Roth, 2000). Some studies suggest that the local scaling for
the standard deviations of velocity and temperature can also be applied in the ISL over urban surfaces (e.g.,
Wood et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2001). Under unstable conditions, the dependence of σ u/u* and σ v/u* on the
local stability parameter in the urban RSL suggests that the turbulence is locally generated. However, when
the standard deviations of velocity components are characterized in the form of σ i =u
¼ ai ð1  bi ζ Þci , the
empirical constants ai and bi and the exponent ci are usually different in different studies. For example,
Roth (2000) suggested that cu has a value of 0.56, while other studies suggest that cu is equal to 1/3 (e.g.,
Oikawa & Meng, 1995; Quan & Hu, 2009). Actually, ci is set to be 1/3 in many studies, and the formula is then
fitted to the observational data to obtain the values of ai and bi. However, when applying a free fitting curve
to the observational data, the exponent ci usually is not equal to 1/3 (Fortuniak et al., 2012). For the standard
deviation of vertical velocity σ w/u*, many studies support its dependence on ζ by a 1/3 power function under
free convective conditions (Feigenwinter et al., 1999; Oikawa & Meng, 1995; Rotach, 1993b; Roth, 2000), and
some studies suggest that the 1/3 power function is also valid under stable conditions (Fortuniak et al., 2012;
Quan & Hu, 2009). However, recent studies show that the 1/3 power law is not generally true under stable
conditions (e.g., Grachev et al., 2013). Whether a set of universal functions can be used to characterize the
turbulence statistics in the urban RSL needs to be examined using more observations and/or numerical
simulations (e.g., large-eddy simulation).

ZOU ET AL. 2
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Based on the observations at different heights over the urban canopy in three cities in the Yangtze River Delta
region of China, Zou et al. (2015) reported that the momentum flux-gradient relationship is applicable in the
urban RSL within the framework of the local similarity theory. In this study, we use the same observational
data as those used by Zou et al. (2015) to evaluate the validity of the universal functions that describe the
dependence of the normalized standard deviations of velocity and temperature on the local atmospheric sta-
bility. Vertical variations of the normalized standard deviations are also revealed. To examine the applicability
of the universal functions, they are used to parameterize the vertical transfer efficiencies of momentum and
sensible heat at different heights in the urban RSL, and the parameterizations are evaluated using the
observational data.

2. Theoretical Background
The concept of local similarity was primarily proposed by Nieuwstadt (1984a, 1984b) for very stable atmo-
spheric boundary layer, where the assumption of constant-flux layer is no longer valid. In the urban RSL,
the assumption of constant-flux layer is also invalid and thus the local similarity is usually applied to charac-
terize the turbulence statistics (e.g., Feigenwinter et al., 1999; Fortuniak et al., 2012; Oikawa & Meng, 1995;
Quan & Hu, 2009; Rotach, 1993b; Roth, 2000). In the framework of local similarity theory, the scaling para-
meters are local and hence vary with height due to vertical variations of turbulent fluxes. The local velocity
scale u*l (local friction velocity), the local temperature scale Tv*l, and the local Obukhov length Λ can be
defined as
 2

2 1=4
u
l ¼ u0 w 0 l þ v 0 w 0 l (1)

0
T v
l ¼ w 0 T v l =u
l (2)

   
g 0 g
Λ ¼ u
l 3 = κ w 0 T v l ¼ u2
l = κ T v
l (3)
Tv Tv

where u0 w 0 l and v 0 w 0 l are the components of vertical momentum flux at a certain height along x and y
0
directions, respectively; w 0 T v l is the vertical kinematic heat flux at the same height; κ (= 0.4) is the von
Kaman constant; and g/Tv is the buoyancy parameter. In a sense, the local similarity theory is a generalization
of MOST.
Many studies have demonstrated that in the urban area, the normalized standard deviations of velocity com-
ponents and temperature can be well characterized by the local stability parameter ζ (=(z  zd)/Λ), where z is
the height above ground and zd is the displacement height. For the standard deviations of velocity compo-
nents, the functions under unstable conditions are supposed to be (e.g., De Bruin et al., 1993; Panofsky &
Dutton, 1984)
σi
¼ ai ð1  bi ζ Þci for ζ < 0 (4a)
u
l

The above function shows that σ i/u*l will approach the limiting value when ζ → 0. The exponent ci is often
presumed to be equal to 1/3 because of the theoretical prediction of the asymptotic behavior by MOST at
the free convection limit (Garratt, 1992; Roth, 2000; Sorbjan, 1989). The dependence of σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l on
the local stability parameter ζ implies that turbulence in the urban RSL is locally generated under unstable
conditions, which is different from that in the surface layer over flat terrain where the horizontal velocity fluc-
tuations are dominated by large eddies and can be scaled by zi/L as reported in Panofsky et al. (1977). There
are relatively few studies on the behavior of σ i/u*l under stable stratification probably due to the complexity
of the stable boundary layer during the nighttime. The stable boundary layer depth can be quite shallow on
clear days with low wind shears (Zhou & Chow, 2011), and turbulence in the surface layer could be affected by
the outer layer flow. Therefore, the use of the given parameterizations for unstable cases is recommended as
a first approximation (Foken, 2008). The normalized standard deviations are usually written as

σi
¼ ai ð1 þ bi ζ Þci for ζ > 0 (4b)
u
l

ZOU ET AL. 3
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Some observations suggest that the exponent ci is equal to 1/3 (e.g., Fortuniak et al., 2012; Quan & Hu, 2009).
However, Grachev et al. (2013) found that σ w/u*l remains almost constant under stable conditions when
Rf < Rfcr (where Rf is the flux Richardson number, and the critical value Rfcr is about 0.20–0.25), whereas it
increases with increasing stability when Rf > Rfcr. They argued that the critical value of Rf describes a break-
down of the Kolmogorov turbulence and attributed the increase of σ w/u*l with increasing stability to the
properties of non-Kolmogorov turbulence (i.e., the nonstationary turbulence generated by other instability
mechanisms or external events in the low-frequency spectral range). In the present study, the behaviors of
the standard deviations of velocity components in the urban RSL are discussed under both unstable and
stable conditions.
The dependence of standard deviation of temperature on the local stability parameter is generally
expressed as
σ T v =jT v
l j ¼ bT v jζ jcT v (5)
under both unstable and stable conditions. Under unstable conditions, the exponent cT v is often presumed to
be equal to 1/3 according to the theoretical consideration of u* independence by MOST in the free convec-
tion limit (Garratt, 1992). Most studies support its validity in urban areas (e.g., Al-Jiboori et al., 2002; Fortuniak
et al., 2012; Quan & Hu, 2009; Roth, 2000), even though the measurement height is obviously above the urban
RSL (e.g., 190 m above the ground reported by Wood et al. (2010)). However, the dependence of σ T v =T v
l on ζ
under stable conditions in urban areas is not investigated sufficiently. Quan and Hu (2009) argued that the
1/3 power law is also applicable in the urban RSL, whereas Fortuniak et al. (2012) proposed a different for-
mula. In the present study, equation (5) is evaluated by observational data at different heights above the
urban canopy in three cities.
Once the dependences of σ i/u*l and σ T v =T v
l on ζ in the urban RSL are known, the efficiencies of the turbulent
transfer of momentum (ruw) and heat (rwT) can be characterized. The vertical transfer efficiencies of momen-
tum and heat are defined as the correlation coefficients:

 1  1
u0 w 0 l u2 σu σw
r uw ¼ ¼
l ¼ (6)
σu σw σuσw u
l u
l

0  1  1
w 0 T v l u
l T v
l σw σT v
r wT v ¼ ¼ ¼ (7)
σw σT v σw σT v u
l T v
l

Therefore, the dependences of σ i/u*l and σ T v =T v
l on ζ can be used to parameterize the vertical transfer effi-
ciencies of momentum and heat. The parameterizations are evaluated using the observational data in the
present study.

3. Observations and Data Processing

3.1. Observations and Urban Morphology
The three observation sites are located in the cities of Nanjing (32°020 N, 118°470 E), Suzhou (31°180 N,
120°350 E), and Changzhou (31°470 N, 119°540 E) in the Yangtze River Delta of China. Figure 1 shows the aerial
photographs of the observation sites in the three cities, which are the same as in Zou et al. (2015). At the site
in Nanjing, the observation mast was mounted on the roof of a 22 m high building, and two ultrasonic anem-
ometers (CSAT3A, Campbell) were installed at 33.5 m and 48.5 m above the ground level, respectively. Four
cup anemometers (010C, Campbell) were installed at the heights of 27 m, 31 m, 37 m, and 51.5 m above the
ground level, respectively. The measurements were conducted from 25 November 2011 to 7 August 2012. At
the site in Suzhou, the observation mast was mounted on the roof of a 14 m high building, and three ultra-
sonic anemometers (CSAT 3A, Campbell) were installed at 20 m, 23 m, and 32 m above the ground level,
respectively. Four cup anemometers (010C, Campbell) were installed at the heights of 17 m, 20 m, 26 m,
and 35 m above the ground level, respectively. The measurements were conducted from 4 January 2014
to 26 January 2015. At the site in Changzhou, the observation mast was mounted on the roof of a 17 m high
building, and an ultrasonic anemometer (CSAT 3A, Campbell) was installed at 35 m above the ground level.
Four cup anemometers (010C, Campbell) were installed at the heights of 20 m, 23 m, 29 m, and 41 m above

ZOU ET AL. 4
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 1. Aerial photographs of the observation sites marked by the red stars and their source areas in (a) Nanjing,
(b) Suzhou, and (c) Changzhou from Zou et al. (2015). The range of wind direction is selected to be 30°–90° for Nanjing,
120°–210° for Suzhou, and 30°–60° for Changzhou, respectively, where 0° is defined as the direction of due north. The
radius of the source areas is 800 m. In each selected source area there are only a few high-rise buildings and they are all
more than 500 m away from the observation site. The areas surrounding the observation sites, with the views toward the
source areas from the observation sites, can be found in Zou et al. (2015).

the ground level, respectively. The measurements were conducted from 1 May 2011 to 12 August 2012. The
three observation masts were triangular towers with side width of 0.35 m, and the instruments were
mounted on 1.5 m arms extending southeastward from the towers. The sampling frequency of the data
logger (CR3000, Campbell) was set to be 10 Hz for turbulence measurements at each site to record the
three velocity components (u, v, w) and virtual air temperature (Tv).
Since the urban surface is highly inhomogeneous, the source area of measurements and the variation of
canopy layer characteristics along the wind direction should be considered. The flux footprints are estimated
for the measurement heights using the analytical footprint (K-M) model of Kormann and Meixner (2001),
which is widely used by the urban micrometeorological community (e.g., Christen et al., 2011; Kotthaus &
Grimmond, 2012; Nordbo et al., 2013; Zou et al., 2017). Although the idealized K-M model is strictly applicable
to flat and homogeneous terrain under stationary conditions with height-independent crosswind dispersion,
it is used here to estimate the footprint due to the lack of a better alternative. Our calculations indicate that
the far upwind end of the 75% source area for the highest measurement height in each site is around 800 m

ZOU ET AL. 5
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Table 1 in most wind directions. In this study, the selected source areas are the
Fetches of 75% Source Area for the Six Measurement Heights in the Selected same as those in Zou et al. (2015). As illustrated by the shaded areas in
Sectors and Morphological Parameters in the Source Areas
Figure 1, the source area for each individual site is taken as a sector with
Sites Height Fetch z0/zH zd/zH λp λf a radius of 800 m. The range of wind direction is selected to be 30°–90°
Suzhou 1.2zH 400 m 0.120 0.624 0.295 0.397 for Nanjing, 120°–210° for Suzhou, and 30°–60° for Changzhou, respec-
Suzhou 1.4zH 500 m 0.123 0.615 0.293 0.371 tively, for the purpose of avoiding influences of nearby high-rise build-
Nanjing 1.6zH 500 m 0.114 0.574 0.332 0.313 ings in the source areas. The canopy layer parameters like the mean
Suzhou 1.9zH 800 m 0.123 0.614 0.263 0.369
building height (zH), the plan aerial fraction (λp), and the frontal area
Nanjing 2.4zH 800 m 0.124 0.581 0.280 0.301
Changzhou 3.4zH 800 m 0.110 0.507 0.281 0.179 index (λf) are calculated in the source area for each site (see the defini-
tions in Grimmond and Oke, 1999). The displacement height (zd) and
aerodynamic roughness length (z0) are derived following the method
of Raupach (1994, 1995). These parameters do not change significantly with wind direction in the selected
sectors (Zou et al., 2015). Therefore, it is expected that the characteristics of turbulence statistics in the
selected sectors also do not change significantly with wind direction and are not distorted by the high-rise
buildings. This treatment may reduce the uncertainties in the measured turbulence statistics introduced by
the heterogeneity of urban surface.
The far upwind end of the 75% source area for each measurement height in the selected sectors is calculated.
The morphological parameters of λp, λf, z0/zH, and zd/zH are listed in Table 1. The building density, represented
by λp, does not change significantly in different source areas for a single site and for different sites (the values
of λp are close to 0.3). However, the frontal area index λf in Suzhou is relatively large because the wind blows
toward the wider side of the rectangular building as shown in Figure 1. The turbulence statistics are usually
presented as functions of the effective height normalized by the roughness length (i.e., (z  zd)/z0) or the
height above the ground normalized by the mean building height (i.e., z/zH). The former is a natural choice
based on the wind profile equation, while the latter is a crude estimate of the site roughness, which is
more important from a practical point of view and easier to derive (Roth, 2000). Table 1 shows that the values
of z0/zH in different source areas are almost the same (about 0.11–0.12), suggesting that (z  zd)/z0 and z/zH
are equivalent. We simply use the later in the present study. And also, since the morphological characteristics
in the source areas for different heights are similar, we choose 800 m as the streamwise distance (i.e., the
fetch) of source area for various heights. The mean building heights within the selected source areas are
20.5 m for Nanjing, 16.7 m for Suzhou, and 10.4 m for Changzhou, respectively. Therefore, the relative heights
of measurements are 1.6zH and 2.4zH for Nanjing, 1.2zH, 1.4zH and 1.9zH for Suzhou, and 3.4zH for Changzhou.
These heights are all expected to be within the urban RSL (Zou et al., 2015).
3.2. Data Processing
The turbulence data are subjected to quality control using spike detection and rejection algorithms that are
the same as in Zou et al. (2015). If the proportion of spike points exceeds 1% in a set of data covering a period
of 30 min, the whole set of data is removed (Foken, 2008). Following Kaimal and Finnigan (1994), the coordi-
nates are rotated twice to align with the streamwise direction (i.e., V ¼ W ¼ 0). At 30 min intervals, the linear
detrending method is first applied to the time series, and the 30 min average values are used to compute
instantaneous fluctuations. Turbulence statistics including the turbulent fluxes are then computed.
Corrections associated with the influence of air moisture are applied to sonic virtual temperature
(Schotanus et al., 1983). Following Högström (1988) and Song et al. (2010), the data are removed when the
friction velocity u*< 0.1 m/s. The data on rainy days are also removed. In this study we directly use virtual tem-
perature to calculate the sensible heat flux, because the altitudes of the three cites are all below 30 m and the
difference between virtual temperature and virtual potential temperature is negligibly small. It should be
noted that the observational periods for the measurements at the three levels in Suzhou are not the same
(the details of the observational data are reported in Zou et al. (2015)). There are 3,937 and 4,279 data points
at 1.6zH and 2.4zH, respectively, in Nanjing; 2,335, 611, and 2,958 data points at 1.2zH, 1.4zH, and 1.9zH, respec-
tively, in Suzhou; and 1,474 data points at 3.4zH in Changzhou.
Eddy covariance systems act as filters to remove both high- and low-frequency components of the signal,
which leads to “flux loss” (Aubinet et al., 2012; Moore, 1986). High-frequency losses are mainly due to inade-
quate frequency response, line averaging, sensor separation, and other equipment issues. Observational data
show that high-frequency losses usually consist of losses of CO2 and H2O fluxes rather than the sensible heat

ZOU ET AL. 6
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Table 2
Average Values of σ u/u*, σ v/u*, and σ w/u* Under Neutral Conditions From Different Field Observations
Study σ u/u* = Au σ v/u* = Av σ w/u* = Aw Comments

Counihan (1975) 2.5 1.9 1.25 Rural

a
Panofsky and Dutton (1984) 2.39 ± 0.03 1.92 ± 0.05 1.25 ± 0.03 “Ideal” surface
b
Clarke et al. (1982) 2.39 1.79 1.26 Suburban
Yersel and Goble (1986) 2.73 ± 0.41 2.15 ± 0.35 1.19 ± 0.12 Urban (z = 3.0zH)
c
Roth (2000) 2.49 ± 0.30 1.99 ± 0.28 1.29 ± 0.34 Urban (z ≤ 2.5zH)
2.32 ± 0.16 1.81 ± 0.20 1.25 ± 0.07 Urban (z > 2.5zH)
Wood et al. (2010) 2.3 1.85 1.35 Urban (z ≈ 22zH)
d
This study
Suzhou 2.98 2.45 1.44 Urban (z = 1.2zH)
Suzhou 2.85 2.43 1.38 Urban (z = 1.4zH)
Nanjing 2.63 2.30 1.52 Urban (z = 1.6zH)
Suzhou 2.56 2.27 1.27 Urban (z = 1.9zH)
Nanjing 2.06 1.78 1.27 Urban (z = 2.4zH)
Changzhou 2.17 1.61 1.18 Urban (z = 3.4zH)
a b
The “Ideal” surface is called in Roth (2000), which represents the homogeneous flat surface. The values are the aver-
c
age of observation data from four sites (one rural site and three suburban sites) in St. Louis. The values are the
averages of observation data in the previous studies, which are divided into two groups according to the range of height
d
above the urban canopy. Our results are the average values in the range |ζ| < 0.05.

flux, because the poor high-frequency response of measurement system causes the CO2 or H2O cospectrum
to roll-off more rapidly than for temperature (Aubinet et al., 2012). Zhang et al. (2016) reported that in urban
environment the scale contribution to heat flux at 10 Hz is very close to 0, implying that the smaller-scale (i.e.,
higher-frequency) contribution can be neglected. Low-frequency losses mainly result from the finite
sampling duration, since the averaging period is not always sufficiently long to include all relevant low
frequencies (Aubinet et al., 2012). However, analyses in Zhang et al. (2016) show that for the low-
frequency components at the time scale larger than 30 min, their contributions to heat flux can be found
in suburban environment but not in urban environment. This is because turbulent eddies are reshaped by
the urban buildings and the low-frequency motions are not common in urban environment. To avoid a
possible flux loss caused by inadequate frequency response and sensor separations, a prerequisite of
U > 1 m/s should be imposed (Grachev et al., 2013). In this study we choose an equivalent prerequisite,
that is, u*> 0.1 m/s.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Standard Deviations of Velocity Components
4.1.1. Neutral Conditions
In the framework of local similarity theory, the nondimensional standard deviations of velocity compo-
nents, which are formed using local friction velocity u*l, are universal functions of ζ. Under neutral condi-
tions (ζ → 0), the normalized standard deviations approach their limiting values:
σu σv σw
¼ Au ; ¼ Av ; ¼ Aw (8)
u
l u
l u
l
where Au, Av, and Aw are constants. The typical values over flat terrain are 2.4, 1.9, and 1.25, respectively
(Garratt, 1992). Our observational data show that when the local stability parameter is in the range
|ζ| < 0.05, σ i/u*l (i = u, v, w) does not vary with atmospheric stability (shown in Figures 3 and 5). Therefore,
we choose |ζ| < 0.05 to present the neutral conditions, which is the same as in Roth (2000), to calculate
the average value of Ai (note that the average value in the range 0.05 < ζ < 0 is very close to but not equal
to that in the range 0 < ζ < 0.05, and thus, the value of Ai is slightly different from that of ai). Results at dif-
ferent measurement heights are listed in Table 2. For the purpose of comparison, the values of Ai in some pre-
vious studies (Clarke et al., 1982; Counihan, 1975; Panofsky & Dutton, 1984; Roth, 2000; Wood et al., 2010;
Yersel & Goble, 1986) are also listed.
At each height, Au has the largest value and Aw has the smallest value. These results are consistent with those
in previous studies. However, our results show that Ai decreases with increasing height. As shown in Figure 2,

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 2. Variations of (a) σ u/u*l, (b) σ v/u*l, and (c) σ w/u*l with relative height under near-neutral conditions
(0.05 < ζ < 0.05). The green dots are values from Suzhou; blue dots are from Nanjing; black dots are from Changzhou;
red dotted lines are linear fitting to the observed data. The linearly extrapolated equations are obtained by the least
squares fitting. The difference between the linear fit and the height-constant fit for each velocity component passes the
Student’s t test, and the results indicate that the vertical changes of σ u/u*l, σ v/u*l, and σ w/u*l with z/zH are significant at the
95% confidence level.

Au and Av have similar decreasing rates, while Aw has a smaller decreasing rate. The linearly fitted functions
are Au =  0.39z/zH + 3.32, Av =  0.42z/zH + 2.9, and Aw =  0.13z/zH + 1.60. The Student’s t test is
implemented to examine the significance level of linear change of Ai with height by comparing it with the
height-constant fit (assuming the same value of Āi at different height, where Āi is the average value of Ai at
the six heights). The results indicate that for all the three velocity components the vertical changes of Ai
are significant at the 95% confidence level. At the lowest measurement height close to the urban canopy
top (z = 1.2zH), the values of Ai are apparently larger than the typical values obtained over flat terrain.
However, the same evidence cannot be found in previous studies. For example, Table 4 in Roth (2000)
shows that Ai is larger in some studies but smaller in other studies. It still cannot be concluded whether
the normalized standard deviations of velocity components near the urban canopy top are larger or
smaller than those over flat terrain. Our results imply that the wake effects of buildings enhance
turbulence fluctuations near the urban canopy top, and this is supported by large-eddy simulations
(Giometto et al., 2016). It is known that in the constant-flux layer over flat terrain, where the MOST is valid,
σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l are universal functions of zi/L or z/L, while σ w/u*l is a universal function of z/L under
unstable conditions. Under neutral conditions when z/L → 0 (as well as zi/L → 0), the normalized standard
deviations should be constants and independent of height or surface roughness (Garratt, 1992). Analysis of
observational data in the present study shows that σ u and σ v are weakly sensitive to z, while the local
friction velocity u*l increases with height in the urban RSL (Zou et al., 2017), leading to a decrease of Au
and Av with height in this layer. For the w component, σ w increases with height (Zou et al., 2017) and u*l
also increases with height in the urban RSL, resulting in a decrease of Aw with height in this layer. Note
that the decreasing rate of Aw is smaller than those of Au and Av.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Table 3
The Coefficients in Equation (4a) Derived From 1/3 Power Law Fit and From Free Parameter Fit for Each Height Under
Unstable Conditions
2
Site Height au bu cu R

Suzhou 1.2zH 2.76 (2.77) 0.82 (0.10) 0.33 (1.70) 0.28 (0.32)
Suzhou 1.4zH 2.61 (2.60) 0.12 (0.10) 0.33 (0.43) 0.01 (0.01)
Nanjing 1.6zH 2.57 (2.49) 1.10 (1.23) 0.33 (0.39) 0.33 (0.34)
Suzhou 1.9zH 2.26 (2.41) 1.04 (0.09) 0.33 (1.20) 0.12 (0.19)
Nanjing 2.4zH 1.94 (1.97) 1.39 (0.49) 0.33 (0.63) 0.23 (0.24)
Changzhou 3.4zH 2.04 (2.06) 1.83 (0.74) 0.33 (0.62) 0.28 (0.29)
2
Site Height av bv cv R

Suzhou 1.2zH 2.34 (2.33) 1.35 (0.61) 0.33 (0.59) 0.41 (0.43)
Suzhou 1.4zH 2.27 (2.31) 0.46 (0.09) 0.33 (1.10) 0.05 (0.06)
Nanjing 1.6zH 2.21 (2.15) 3.21 (5.67) 0.33 (0.27) 0.42 (0.42)
Suzhou 1.9zH 2.16 (2.19) 1.85 (1.10) 0.33 (0.39) 0.33 (0.33)
Nanjing 2.4zH 1.66 (1.66) 4.60 (4.73) 0.33 (0.33) 0.42 (0.42)
Changzhou 3.4zH 1.53 (1.49) 6.03 (10.7) 0.33 (0.27) 0.46 (0.47)
2
Site Height aw bw cw R

Suzhou 1.2zH 1.31 (1.33) 1.07 (0.27) 0.33 (0.81) 0.44 (0.47)
Suzhou 1.4zH 1.23 (1.26) 0.87 (0.12) 0.33 (1.58) 0.37 (0.39)
Nanjing 1.6zH 1.46 (1.47) 1.63 (1.33) 0.33 (0.37) 0.41 (0.41)
Suzhou 1.9zH 1.14 (1.16) 1.37 (0.54) 0.33 (0.56) 0.57 (0.59)
Nanjing 2.4zH 1.20 (1.21) 1.86 (0.79) 0.33 (0.55) 0.43 (0.44)
Changzhou 3.4zH 1.08 (1.10) 2.71 (2.30) 0.33 (0.40) 0.53 (0.57)
Note. The results in the parentheses are from the free parameter fit.

4.1.2. Unstable Conditions

Under unstable conditions (ζ <  0.05), equation (4a) is fitted to the observational data to determine the
empirical constants by free parameters and by the fixed ci value of 1/3, respectively. To compare the perfor-
mance of the two different methods, the goodness of fit (R2) between the data and the curves from the two
fitting methods are calculated. The results are listed in Table 3. The values of ai derived from the two methods
are almost the same because they are determined by the data under near-neutral conditions and thus are
independent of the atmospheric stability. However, the values of bi derived from the two methods are quite
different, implying that this coefficient is sensitive to the form of fitting function. For the exponent ci, the free
parameter fit gives different values at different measurement heights for each velocity component, and most
values deviate from 1/3 by more than 20%. This situation makes it difficult to discuss the turbulence statistics
in the urban RSL. However, comparison of goodness of the two fitting methods shows that the performance
of the free parameter fit is only slightly better than that of the 1/3 power law fit. This result implies that the
two schemes can be regarded as equivalent in characterizing the standard deviations of velocity. Considering
the theoretical prediction of the asymptotic behavior by MOST in the free convection limit, it is believed that
the 1/3 power law can properly describe the standard deviations of velocity (at least it is a good approxima-
tion). For the height of 1.4zH at Suzhou site, the value of R2 is very close to 0 for σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l, whereas it is
about 0.4 for σ w/u*l, suggesting that the fitted curves for u and v components are not representative probably
due to the fewer data points, while the fitted curve for w component is acceptable. Overall, the goodness of
fit for v component is better than that for u component, and the goodness of fit for w component is the best.
The relatively poor goodness of fit for u and v components may imply that to some extent the horizontal velo-
city fluctuations are influenced by large eddies in the mixed layer. However, in this study we cannot confirm
whether ζ (=(z  zd)/Λ) is better than zi/L in characterizing σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l due to the lack of measurements of
mixed-layer height. It is more likely that the horizontal velocity fluctuations in the urban RSL are dominated
by locally generated turbulence, because the RSL above urban canopy is the turbulent wake layer, where the
wakes and internal boundary layers from the individual buildings and surface patterns can still be discerned
(Stull, 1988).

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 3. Dependence of (a1–a6) σ u/u*l, (b1–b6) σ v/u*l, and (c1–c6) σ w/u*l on ζ under unstable conditions (ζ < 0). From top
to bottom, the measurement heights are at 1.2zH, 1.4zH, 1.6zH, 1.9zH, 2.4zH, and 3.4zH, respectively. The red crosses
represent the bin-averaged values, and the blue solid lines represent the fitted curves from equation (4a) by the 1/3 power
law fit. The black solid lines represent the functions proposed in Roth (2000).

The dependence of normalized standard deviations of velocity components on the local stability parameter ζ
under unstable conditions and the fitted curves by the 1/3 power law are plotted in Figure 3. For comparison,
the curves proposed by Roth (2000) are also plotted in the figure. The 1/3 power law function can character-
ize the relationship between σ i/u*l and ζ reasonably at different heights in the urban RSL under unstable con-
ditions, except for the height of 1.4zH at Suzhou site. The data show that σ i/u*l decreases initially with
increasing instability, which results in a minimum at about ζ = 0.1 – 0.2 for some measurement heights
(e.g., Figures 3a1, 3b1, 3c1, 3a4, 3b4, and 3c4). This phenomenon has been reported in Roth (2000) and
can also be found in some other studies (e.g., Figure 5 in Feigenwinter et al. (1999) and Figure 4.47 in
Christen (2005)). It seems that this phenomenon can only be found in urban environment. The reason is
not clear. This phenomenon may imply that the turbulence behaviors in the urban RSL under weakly

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 4. The empirical constant bi in equation (4a) for (a) σ u/u*l, (b) σ v/u*l, and (c) σ w/u*l at different heights under
unstable conditions (ζ < 0). The green dots are values from Suzhou; blue dots are from Nanjing; black dots are from
Changzhou. The green circles are values from 1.4zH in Suzhou, where the goodness of fit is very small. The black dotted
lines are linear fitting to the observed data, except for the values at 1.4zH in Suzhou. The linearly extrapolated equations are
obtained by the least squares fitting. The difference between the linear fit and the height-constant fit for each velocity
component passes the Student’s t test, and the results indicate that the vertical changes of bi with z/zH are significant at the
95% confidence level.

unstable conditions are different from those over the flat terrain. For σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l, the formulas proposed
by Roth (2000) systematically underestimate the values of our observational data. It can be found that the
differences between the data and the curves of Roth (2000) decrease with height, suggesting that the
values of σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l decrease with height. A similar situation is also found for σ w/u*l.
It is interesting that the application of free parameter fit results in scatter and irregular values of bi for
different heights, whereas the application of 1/3 power law fit results in regular values of bi, which has an
increasing trend with height. A regular distribution of the value of bi with height is likely reasonable. Here
we discuss the vertical change of bi derived by the 1/3 power law fit. As expressed in equation (4a), bi is
directly related to the stability parameter ζ and its magnitude reflects the degree of the influence of
atmospheric stability on σ i/u*l. When bi has a relatively large value, σ i/u*l grows more rapidly with increasing
ζ, corresponding to a stronger effect of atmospheric stability on the normalized standard deviations of velo-
city components. Figure 4 shows the vertical distribution of bi under unstable conditions. The linearly fitted
functions are bu = 0.45z/zH + 0.29, bv = 1.36z/zH  0.25, and bw = 0.73z/zH + 0.19. Although the details are
different for different velocity components, in general the values of bi for all the three velocity components
increase with height under unstable conditions, implying that the influence of atmospheric stability on σ i/u*l
becomes larger at higher elevation in the urban RSL.
In theory, when the local similarity theory (or MOST) is valid, that is, the normalized turbulence statistics are
universal functions of ζ (or z/L), the coefficients should be constant with height. However, results of the pre-
sent study show that bi varies with height. This result suggests that an additional length scale imposed upon
the turbulent flow by activities in the turbulent wakes generated by flow around the roughness elements

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Table 4
The Coefficients in Equation (4b) Derived From 1/3 Power Law Fit and From Free Parameter Fit for Each Height Under
Stable Conditions
2
Site Height au bu cu R

Suzhou 1.2zH 2.93 (2.92) 0.52 (17.8) 0.33 (0.03) 0.01 (0.01)
Suzhou 1.4zH 2.98 (2.89) 1.01 (13.8) 0.33 (0.08) 0.06 (0.07)
Nanjing 1.6zH 2.67 (2.62) 1.15 (6.11) 0.33 (0.14) 0.10 (0.11)
Suzhou 1.9zH 2.50 (2.48) 1.42 (3.52) 0.33 (0.19) 0.13 (0.14)
Nanjing 2.4zH 2.09 (2.08) 1.49 (2.59) 0.33 (0.24) 0.17 (0.17)
Changzhou 3.4zH 2.17 (2.20) 3.48 (0.54) 0.33 (1.37) 0.26 (0.27)
2
Site Height av bv cv R

Suzhou 1.2zH 2.42 (2.39) 1.49 (8.86) 0.33 (0.11) 0.05 (0.05)
Suzhou 1.4zH 2.50 (2.42) 1.55 (12.8) 0.33 (0.11) 0.08 (0.09)
Nanjing 1.6zH 2.29 (2.29) 1.61 (1.61) 0.33 (0.33) 0.13 (0.13)
Suzhou 1.9zH 2.22 (2.22) 1.66 (0.81) 0.33 (0.57) 0.11 (0.11)
Nanjing 2.4zH 1.80 (1.78) 2.05 (3.83) 0.33(0.24) 0.20 (0.20)
Changzhou 3.4zH 1.60 (1.61) 3.43 (0.04) 0.33 (15.8) 0.18 (0.19)
2
Site Height aw bw cw R

Suzhou 1.2zH 1.46 (1.45) 0.69 (19.1) 0.33 (0.04) 0.02 (0.02)
Suzhou 1.4zH 1.45 (1.43) 1.38 (4.64) 0.33 (0.16) 0.09 (0.09)
Nanjing 1.6zH 1.56 (1.54) 1.12 (4.52) 0.33 (0.15) 0.13 (0.13)
Suzhou 1.9zH 1.27 (1.28) 0.96 (0.02) 0.33 (12.9) 0.10 (0.10)
Nanjing 2.4zH 1.29 (1.27) 1.29 (4.49) 0.33 (0.16) 0.16 (0.16)
Changzhou 3.4zH 1.20 (1.21) 1.32 (0.05) 0.33 (7.26) 0.14 (0.15)
Note. The results in the parentheses are from the free parameter fit.

should be considered in the urban RSL. Considering the wake effects on the vertical gradient of wind speed,
Physick and Garratt (1995) modified the MOST functions in the RSL. They used (κz/u*)∂U/∂z = ΦM(z0 /L)ϕ
0 0
M(z /z*) to characterize the momentum flux-gradient relationship in the RSL, where z and z* are the height
and RSL thickness above zd. Mölder et al. (1999) evaluated this scheme using the data measured over the
forest canopy and suggested ϕ M = (z0 /z*)0.6. Although imposing ϕ(z0 /z*) upon the MOST functions is not
really an application of local similarity, in which the local stability parameter should be used, their results
suggest that an additional length scale should be taken into account. Results of the present study imply
that the universal functions for σ i/u*l have the form of σ i =u
l ¼ ai ð1  bi ζ Þci with ai and bi being functions
of z/zH (which is similar to z0 /z* because z* is about 4 times zH based on observations at the three sites
used for the present study; Zou et al., 2015). It can be expected that the wake effects decrease with height
in the urban RSL since wake turbulence is produced mechanically. This situation coincides with the
increasing bi with height, because stronger wake-produced turbulence at lower height in the RSL weakens
the dependence of σ i/u*l on ζ and leads to a smaller value of bi at this height. On the other hand, the
decrease of wake effects with height coincides with the decrease of ai under neutral conditions (as
discussed in the previous section). Therefore, the approximately linear changes of bi and ai with height
suggest that the universal function by a 1/3 power law of ζ is valid for characterizing the behaviors of σ i/u*l
in the urban RSL, and the vertical variations of ai and bi are consistent with the concept of local similarity.
4.1.3. Stable Conditions
Under stable conditions, equation (4b) is fitted to the observational data to determine the empirical con-
stants by free parameters and by fixed ci value of 1/3, respectively. The goodness of fit (R2) between the data
and the curves from the two fitting methods are calculated. The results are listed in Table 4. Similar to the
situation under unstable conditions, the values of ai derived from the two methods are almost the same,
while the values of bi derived from the two methods are quite different. For the exponent ci, the free para-
meter fit gives different values at different measurement heights for each velocity component, including very
small (close to 0) and very large (larger than 10.0) values. The performance of 1/3 power law fit is comparable
to that of free parameter fit, because the values of R2 from the two methods are almost the same. But almost

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 5. Same as Figure 3 but under stable conditions (ζ > 0). The blue dots denote the data when the flux Richardson
number (Rf) is larger than 0.2; others are green. The red crosses represent the bin-averaged values; the blue solid lines
represent the fitted curves from equation (4b) by the 1/3 power law fit. The black solid lines represent the curves proposed
by Quan and Hu (2009).

all the values of R2 are smaller than 0.25, implying that the representatives of the two fitted curves are not
very good. The dependence of normalized standard deviations of velocity components on the stability
parameter ζ under stable conditions and the fitted curves by the 1/3 power law are plotted in Figure 5. For
comparison, the curves proposed by Quan and Hu (2009) are also drawn in the figure. It seems that the
1/3 power law function can describe the increase of σ i/u*l with increasing stability. On the other hand, the
values of bi derived from the free parameter fit are highly scattered and their distributions with height are
irregular. In contrast, the values derived from the 1/3 power law fit are somewhat regular and increase
with height. This is particularly obvious for σ u/u*l and σ v/u*l (the figure is not shown). Based on the above
results, the 1/3 power law function is implemented to characterize the dependence of σ i/u*l on ζ under
stable conditions.

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 6. Relationships between σ T v =T v
l and ζ under (a1–a6) unstable conditions and (b1–b6) stable conditions. The red
crosses represent bin-averaged values, the blue solid lines represent the fitted curves under unstable (left column) and
stable (right column) conditions (|ζ| > 0.05). The black solid reference curves are from Roth (2000); the black dotted
reference curves are from Quan and Hu (2009).

As shown in Figure 5, there are only a few data points with larger stabilities (ζ > 1.0), and the data points are
very scattered. In this situation, the increase of σ i/u*l with increasing stability is not evident enough. This is
probably why the goodness of 1/3 power law fit or free parameter fit is poor under stable conditions.
Following the analysis in Grachev et al. (2013), we denote the data points corresponding to Rf ≤ Rfcr as green
dots with those corresponding to Rf > Rfcr as blue dots (Rfcr = 0.2) in Figure 5. Grachev et al. (2013) reported
that the value of σ w/u*l remains almost constant when Rf ≤ Rfcr, whereas the value of σ w/u*l increases with
increasing stability when Rf > Rfcr, although the data overlap in the moderate stabilities (0.5 < ζ < 1.0).
They argued that the different behaviors of turbulence statistics are caused by different kinds of turbulence
(the Kolmogorov turbulence for Rf ≤ Rfcr and the non-Kolmogorov turbulence for Rf > Rfcr). However, Figure 5
shows that the data of σ i/u*l for the two kinds of turbulence overlap and have the same varying trend with

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Table 5
The Coefficients in Equation (5) Derived From 1/3 Power Law Fit and From Free Parameter Fit for Each Height Under Unstable and Stable Conditions
Unstable (ζ <  0.05) Stable (ζ > 0.05)
2 2
Site Height bT v cT v R bT v cT v R

Suzhou 1.2zH 1.27 (1.27) 0.33 (0.33) 0.32 (0.32) 1.76 (1.97) 0.33 (0.28) 0.12 (0.13)
Suzhou 1.4zH 1.52 (1.07) 0.33 (0.53) 0.27 (0.31) 2.17 (1.86) 0.33 (0.41) 0.18 (0.19)
Nanjing 1.6zH 1.56 (1.46) 0.33 (0.37) 0.20 (0.20) 2.98 (2.96) 0.33 (0.34) 0.10 (0.11)
Suzhou 1.9zH 1.49 (1.25) 0.33 (0.43) 0.27 (0.28) 2.24 (2.89) 0.33 (0.21) 0.04 (0.06)
Nanjing 2.4zH 1.43 (1.37) 0.33 (0.35) 0.17 (0.17) 2.79 (2.98) 0.33 (0.30) 0.09 (0.09)
Changzhou 3.4zH 1.42 (1.26) 0.33 (0.39) 0.23 (0.24) 3.46 (3.21) 0.33 (0.37) 0.17 (0.17)
Note. The results in the parentheses are from the free parameter fit.

increasing stability, suggesting that the behaviors of the two kinds of turbulence are similar. Zou et al. (2015)
argued that the wake effects enlarge the value of local critical Richardson number in the urban RSL, and the
local critical Richardson number decreases to the value of 0.2 at the RSL top due to the decrease of the wake
turbulence. Supposing the mean flow under strongly stable conditions (i.e., Rf > 0.2) is steady, it is expected
that the wake turbulence induced by perturbations of buildings can survive and is stationary because of the
persistence of perturbation. This kind of turbulence is not generated by external events in the low-frequency
spectral range. Actually, wake turbulence can be produced when the mean wind is not 0. Therefore, the green
dots in Figure 5 include contributions of wake turbulence because we choose the data by the criterion u*>
0.1 m/s. It seems that turbulence in urban RSL cannot be divided into two different types using the criterion of
Rf = 0.2, as the mechanisms of turbulence generation in this layer are different from that over flat terrain. Of
course, how σ i/u*l varies with ζ under strongly stable conditions should be evaluated by more observations in
urban environments. Nevertheless, our data suggest that σ i/u*l in urban RSL increases with increasing ζ and
can be approximately characterized by the 1/3 power law function under stable conditions.

4.2. Standard Deviation of Temperature

The dependence of σ T v =T v
l on ζ has larger uncertainties than those of the velocity components, especially
under stable conditions. Different studies have suggested different functions (e.g., Al-Jiboori et al., 2002;
Fortuniak et al., 2012; Quan & Hu, 2009; Roth, 2000; Wood et al., 2010). The dependence of σ T v =T v
l on ζ under
both unstable and stable conditions is presented in Figure 6. Our observational data show two regimes for
the relationship between σ T v =T v
l and ζ. The rate of change of σ T v =T v
l with ζ under neutral conditions
(|ζ| < 0.05) is larger than those under nonneutral conditions (|ζ| > 0.05). The same evidences are also found
in Fortuniak et al. (2012). Tampieri et al. (2009) argued that σ T v in the real atmosphere cannot be equal to 0
due to the heterogeneity, and thus a very large value of σ T v =T v
l can be found under neutral conditions when
Tv*l becomes 0. However, σ T v =T v
l is poorly defined in this situation. For this reason, we do not discuss the
behavior of σ T v =T v
l in the range |ζ| < 0.05 in the present study. Equation (5) is fitted to the observational data
to determine the empirical constants by free parameters and by fixed cT v value of 1/3 under unstable
(ζ <  0.05) and stable (ζ > 0.05) conditions, respectively. For comparison, the goodness of fit (R2) between
the data and the curves from the two fitting methods are calculated. The results are listed in Table 5. The
values of R2 from the two methods are relatively small, especially under stable conditions. The reason is that
the data points are scattered (note that Figure 6 is plotted in log-log coordinates). The values of bT v derived
from free parameter fit are slightly smaller than those derived from 1/3 power law fit under unstable con-
ditions, while they are slightly different with each other under stable conditions. In an average sense, the
values of bT v derived from the two methods are in good agreement with each other. For the exponent cT v ,
the values derived from free parameter fit are slightly smaller than 1/3 under unstable conditions, and there
is only slight difference under stable conditions. These results suggest that the 1/3 power law is acceptable
for describing the dependence of σ T v =T v
l on ζ.
The fitted curves using 1/3 power law function under unstable (ζ <  0.05) and stable (ζ > 0.05) conditions
are drawn in Figure 6. For comparison, the curve for unstable conditions proposed by Roth (2000) and the
curve for stable conditions proposed by Quan and Hu (2009) are also drawn in the figure. The curve proposed
by Roth (2000) systematically underestimates σ T v =T v
l , but the differences between his curve and ours at the

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 7. Relationships between ruw and ζ under (a1–a6) unstable and (b1–b6) stable conditions. The blue dots denote the
data when the flux Richardson number (Rf) is larger than 0.2; others are green. The red crosses represent bin-averaged
values, and the blue solid curves represent parameterizations.

six heights are almost the same. As listed in Table 5, under unstable conditions the values of bT v derived from
1/3 power law fit at the six heights are almost the same, with an average value of 1.45, which is very close to
the result in Quan and Hu (2009) (their value is 1.50). Our results suggest that the dependence of σ T v =T v
l on ζ
does not vary with height in the urban RSL under unstable conditions. Under stable conditions, the fitted
curve at each height is close to the curve proposed by Quan and Hu (2009). It is likely that the value of bT v
increases with height. As shown in Table 5, the increasing trend is very clear except for the height of 1.6zH
at Nanjing site. This result implies that the behavior of σ T v =T v
l in the urban RSL under stable conditions is
different from that under unstable conditions.

4.3. Discussion
The correlation coefficients ruw and r wT v are usually used to characterize the vertical transfer efficiencies of
momentum and heat. Larger values of ruw and r wT v mean that the same velocity and temperature

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 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

Figure 8. Relationships between r wT v and ζ under (a1–a6) unstable and (b1–b6) stable conditions. The red crosses represent
bin-averaged values, and the blue solid lines represent parameterizations.

fluctuations can produce larger momentum and heat fluxes, and the turbulence is more coherent. In the
framework of local similarity theory, ruw and r wT v should be functions of local stability parameter ζ. Based
on values of correlation coefficients and standard deviations, the turbulent fluxes of momentum and heat
can be determined. This method is often called eddy correlation method (Foken, 2008). According to
equations (6) and (7) and based on the relationships between σ i/u*l and ζ and between σ T v =T v
l and ζ, the
parameterizations of vertical transfer efficiencies for momentum and heat can be derived. They are
expressed as

u2
1
r uw ¼ ¼ (9)
σ u σ w a a 1 þ ðb þ b Þjζ j þ b b jζ j2 1=3
u w u w u w

u
T v
1
r wT v ¼ ¼
1=3 for jζ j > 0:05 (10)
σuσw aw bT v jζ j1 þ bw

ZOU ET AL. 17
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 10.1002/2017JD027041

In order to evaluate the performance of the above parameterizations, the transfer efficiencies calculated from
the observational data and the curves predicted by equations (9) and (10) are compared.
Figures 7 and 8 show the observed and predicted transfer efficiencies for momentum and sensible heat,
respectively. Figure 7 shows that when |ζ| → 0, |ruw| approaches a constant; when |ζ| → ∞ (i.e., extremely
unstable or stable), |ruw| = 0. The above result indicates that the transfer efficiency of momentum decreases
with increasing atmospheric instability or stability in the urban RSL. This result agrees with the findings of pre-
vious studies (e.g., Quan & Hu, 2009; Roth & Oke, 1995; Wang et al., 2014; Wood et al., 2010; Zou et al., 2017).
For the transfer efficiency of sensible heat, Figure 8 shows that when |ζ| → 0, jr wT v j approaches 0; when
|ζ| → ∞, jr wT v j approaches a constant. It means that the transfer efficiency of sensible heat increases with
increasing atmospheric instability or stability in the urban RSL. This result is also in agreement with the find-
ings of previous studies mentioned above. The agreement between the observational data and the predicted
curves suggest that the parameterization schemes based on the 1/3 power law of σ i/u*l and 1/3 power law
of σ T v =T v
l can well describe the behaviors of ruw and r wT v in the urban RSL.
Although the parameterization schemes for the transfer efficiency of sensible heat are limited in the range
|ζ| > 0.05 because of the limit of fitting at |ζ| = 0.05 for σ T v =T v
l , they can be extrapolated to the range
|ζ| < 0.05 to predict r wT v . Results indicate that they perform very well within the range |ζ| < 0.05 (the results
are not shown because the trend can be seen clearly in Figure 8). This is because within the range |ζ| < 0.05,
the values of r wT v are relatively small and the extrapolated parameterizations can predict the varying trend
very well. The above results indicate that the relationships between σ i/u*l and ζ and between σ T v =T v
l and
ζ obtained in this study can reasonably describe the turbulence behaviors.
Local scaling is found to be a suitable substitute for MOST once the profile of the turbulent fluxes is known
(Rotach, 1993b). But the situation is that we do not know clearly how the turbulent fluxes vary with height
in the urban RSL. Observations show that both the momentum flux and the sensible heat flux increase with
height in this layer (Christen et al., 2009; Grimmond et al., 2004; Zou et al., 2017). Zou et al. (2017) argued that
measurements in the RSL may underestimate urban surface heat flux due to the “blocking effect” of urban
canopy, and the representative surface fluxes in urban areas should be obtained at the RSL top. This problem
is associated with how to characterize the surface energy budget in urban areas. Using underestimated sur-
face heat flux to evaluate numerical models cannot help to improve their performance. On the other hand,
MOST is still used in numerical models to estimate fluxes at the first grid level (usually in the RSL where
MOST is not valid) in urban areas mainly due to the lack of a better alternative (Grimmond et al., 2010,
2011). Since observations are usually performed within the urban RSL, it is important to know the exact form
of the vertical distribution of turbulent fluxes so that the thermodynamics of the turbulent flow in this layer
can be well understood and better characterized. Our observations suggest that the turbulence statistics (i.e.,
the standard deviations) vary with height in the urban RSL. These results can provide useful information for
further understanding of the surface-atmosphere interactions in urban areas.

5. Conclusions
The analysis of observational data shows that the local similarity theory can characterize the standard
deviations of temperature and velocity components very well under both stable and unstable conditions.
Although the turbulent velocity and temperature were measured in different cities and at different nor-
malized heights above the urban canopy, the dependence of the normalized standard deviations of velo-
city components on the local stability parameter follows a universal function of σ i/u*l = ai(1 + bi| ζ| )1/3,
while the dependence of the normalized standard deviation of temperature on the local stability para-
meter follows a universal function of σ T v =T v
l ¼ bT v jζ j1=3 under both unstable and stable conditions
when |ζ| > 0.05.
Under neutral conditions (|ζ| < 0.05), the normalized standard deviations of velocity components decrease
with height. This characteristic indicates that the dynamics of turbulent flow above an urban canopy is differ-
ent from that over the homogenous flat surface. Under nonneutral conditions, for the standard deviation of
velocity components, the empirical constant bi increases with height, suggesting that the influence of atmo-
spheric stability on the turbulent velocity becomes stronger at higher levels in the urban RSL. This property is
more evident under unstable conditions.

ZOU ET AL. 18
 Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
Acknowledgments
This work is sponsored by the State Key
Research and Development Program of
China (2010CB428501) and Jiangsu
Provincial 2011 program for
Collaborative Innovation Center of
Climate Change. Jun Zou is also sup-
ported by the program for Outstanding
PhD Candidate of Nanjing University.
The data used in this study can be
accessed via http://pan.baidu.com/s/
1mimk6Di. We thank the three anon-
ymous reviewers for their constructive
comments and suggestions that are
helpful to improve this manuscript.
ZOU ET AL.
10.1002/2017JD027041
For the standard deviation of temperature, the empirical constant bT v remains almost unchanged with height
under unstable conditions, suggesting that in this situation the dependence of σ T v =T v
l on ζ may be indepen-
dent of height in the urban RSL. However, the observational data show that bT v exhibits an increasing trend
with height under stable conditions.
Finally, parameterizations of vertical transfer efficiencies for momentum and sensible heat are obtained using
the relationships between σ i/u*l and ζ and between σ T v =T v
l and ζ and evaluated by the observational data.
The parameterization schemes can well predict the dependence of ruw and r wT v on ζ. This study reveals some
details of the standard deviations of velocity and temperature, especially their vertical changes, in the urban
RSL. These results can provide useful information for understanding the thermodynamics of turbulent flow
above urban canopy. However, these properties are rarely reported in the previous studies and should be
evaluated by more observations or numerical simulations. Moreover, how to interpret these phenomenolo-
gical results should be further investigated.
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