Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine how effective a hydropower generator is for producing

sustainable energy for daily usage. To save money and lessen its negative effects on the

environment, researchers are interested in finding out how to generate power using water.

We, the researchers, generated these questions to be answered in this study:

1. What is the maximum capacity of a generator?

2. At what velocity rate must water flow to generate energy/electricity

3. What type of turbine works best for generating energy?

4. What are the benefits of a hydroelectric generator;

a. Environmental

b. Economic

5. What are the possible outcomes to humanity if we continue to use a hydroelectric

generator?

6. What are the factors of using a hydroelectric generator?

 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter contains the literature and studies that are related to the topic of the

effectiveness of hydroelectric generators in producing sustainable energy. This includes both

global and local research that is relevant to the topic.

It has been proven by numerous studies that hydroelectric power is a significant source of

renewable energy worldwide. According to a study conducted by Sommers and Hunt (2003).

DOE Hydropower Program Annual Report for FY 2002. Hydropower is one of the most

important renewable energy resources in the United States, and the technology for creating

hydroelectricity from flowing water has been around for more than a century. Additionally, they

claimed that hydropower is domestic and reliable and offers non-energy benefits like water

supply and flood management in addition to having major advantages over other energy sources.

Thus, hydropower poses challenges in energy development since, while it has many advantages,

it also has some environmental challenges, where the advantages of hydropower might be offset

by bad situations (Mattice, 1991). This includes the obstruction of upstream fish passage,

changes in water quality, changes in instream habitat, and fish injuries caused by turbine

passage.

In this study, they opted to focus on the improvement of environmental performance of

hydroelectric projects by addressing the environmental challenges they encounter such as the

mortality of fishes during passage through turbines in order to develop more environmentally

friendly technology. The aim of developing new turbine conceptual design where fish passage
would not lead to fish injuries and mortality while the hydroelectric generator is converting

energy.

As per Yah, Oumer, and Idris (2017). Small Scale hydro-power as source of renewable

energy in Malaysia: A review. Turbine design varies depending on the blade angle, turbine

arrangement, number of blades, and so on, because turbine performance interacts with the

turbine configuration. As a result, turbines that are intended to be installed should be selected

based on the head and the available flow rate at the site, and site potential is the first

consideration when choosing the type of turbine to use. According to their study, water head and

available flow rate are the key elements that determine the performance of the turbine. If

considering the survival rate of fishes in making and designing turbines, fish survival rates for

passage through turbines can be considerably improved by environmentally friendly design of

the turbine blades. While there are various types of turbines for hydroelectric generators, one

must take into account certain aspects while selecting the ideal turbine to operate for energy

production because different turbines perform better in different locations with respect to the

water head and flow rate at the site.

Furthermore, in the study of Kaunda, Kimambo, and Nielsen (2012). Hydropower in the

Context of Sustainable Energy Supply: A Review of Technology and Challenges. They claimed

that one of the most effective methods for generating electricity is hydropower, which is popular

in many countries. This study has proven that certain developed nations completely rely on

hydropower for their energy needs, which makes the technology mature and dependable because

other developed nations depend on it. The conclusion of this paper, which included the effects of

hydropower production on the local ecosystem, was that hydropower technology is among the

most environmentally and socially sensitive forms of energy production. The impacts of
hydropower, on the other hand, are exclusively determined by the size and location of the

project; in general, larger-scale hydropower projects have bigger impacts than smaller-scale

ones. Many countries, particularly in Europe, have set 10 MW (megawatts) as the limit for small-

scale hydropower, with anything above that limit is considered a large-scale project.

Moreover, they explained that small-scale hydropower technology is economically

feasible for private investments operating as independent electricity generators. Small-scale

hydropower projects could be one of the answers for the limited development of hydropower in

such nations, given the financial constraints that many developing nations experience while

executing large-scale hydropower projects. This can considerably contribute to increase national

access to energy, decreasing the consequences of climate change, and creating economic

opportunities that in turn effectively foster sustainable growth.

In accordance with the study of Guiamel and Lee (2020). Potential hydropower

estimation for the Mindanao River Basin in the Philippines based on watershed modelling using

the soil and water assessment tool. Flowing water at a given head difference generates

hydroelectricity, and energy is theoretically calculated by the flow rate and the height difference

of falling water over a given period. As a result, because it is clean, economical, and

environmentally benign, hydropower is a more sustainable renewable energy source than the

others (Elbatran and colleagues 2015). In general, hydropower can be useful and helpful in

lowering pollution and carbon emissions if it is controlled properly, but it also poses a potentially

fatal risk to people and can upset the natural environment's processes, as indicated in the study

conducted by Sommers and Hunt (2003). The preceding paper also discussed how

hydropower generates energy by turning the potential energy of falling water from an elevated
reservoir into kinetic energy. By driving turbines with the force of falling water, generators are

propelled to produce electrical energy.

Stated in the study conducted by Arnaiz, et, al., (2018). Micro-hydropower impact on

communities’ livelihood analysed with the capability approach. Access to electricity is one of the

pillars of human development. In certain rural parts of other developing countries, access to

electricity has been highlighted as one of the primary elements threatening their progress toward

a better livelihood. They explained that micro-hydropower systems, a type of hydroelectric

power generator, can generate electricity for isolated communities that are not connected to

national electricity networks, allowing them to achieve economic growth, social progress, and

increased human well-being in the same way that the rest of the region does. Electricity is most

commonly used in communities early in the morning and late at night, when men and children

wake up and return from work or school. Due to this, they emphasized that micro-hydropower is

far more convenient than solar generation because it only affects energy consumption at night,

resulting in several livelihood benefits. Also, micro-hydropower projects are distinctive in that

they generate jobs for the system's management and maintenance.

As stated in the paper of Mondal, et, al., (2018). The Philippines' energy future and

efforts for low-carbon growth. Modern life is believed to rely on having access to clean energy,

which is also a requirement for all industries involved in manufacturing. As a major factor in

socioeconomic development, energy consumption promotes growth in the economy. However,

when it comes to the electricity industry, The Philippines presently relies heavily on fossil fuels

and will likely boost the use of coal-based facilities to satisfy future energy demands, which

would have a detrimental impact on the environment. They added that the nation has had

electricity shortages in the summertime since the 1990s and that it currently faces two major
issues due to its significant reliance on fossil fuels and increasing energy consumption. If this

keeps up, anticipated difficulties in the electrical industry would probably result in unmet

electricity demand, soaring electricity prices, and a potential rise in the rate of greenhouse

emissions.

The research claims that these problems led the government to decide to pursue

alternative policy options, such as carbon taxes, in order to control the growth of greenhouse gas

emissions in the future. The government stresses the significance of having access to a more

dependable energy sources using indigenous power sources while avoiding the use of fossil fuels

because the potential for renewable energy in the Philippines is significant and could be

beneficial to an improved supply of modern reliable energy. Geothermal and hydroelectric power

plants fall under this category.

Moreover, in the study conducted by Moran, et., al, (2018). Sustainable hydropower in

the 21st century. Hydropower may play a significant part in the provision of affordable energy for

a future that is environmentally friendly. Sustainable energy development may make it easier to

meet global energy needs, assure food security, and ensure water availability. Dams have also

been used by humans for land management, flood control, and water storage for agriculture over

the years. However, hydropower development in other developing countries appears to ignore

climate change scenarios, and numerous aspects must be considered. To ensure that dams

contribute to environmentally friendly power systems, environmental and social implications

must be considered prior to construction. This is to determine whether or not the hydropower

plant has harmed the living. Hydropower generators do help to sustain electricity demands,

particularly in locations where access to electricity is limited. However, without taking into
consideration all of the aspects that hydropower influences, it would have a negative impact on

humans.

Furthermore, despite the advantages hydropower plants offer, failure to take into account

all the variables it affects would have detrimental consequences. According to the paper, in order

to attain clean energy, the building of this renewable source must assess if it is destroying or

support the country in meeting its demands.

As stated by the study of Okot (2013). Review of small hydropower technology. One of

the most widely utilized technologies for generating electricity in rural regions is small

hydropower, a subtype of hydroelectric power generator. According to this study, hydro turbines

can convert up to 90% of the available energy into electricity, making hydropower plants the

most effective way to produce electricity. They also emphasized that the turbines used in the

generator are chosen depending on the head and flow of water at the site, but it also depends on

how deep the turbine must be set. Hydro turbines are classified into two types: impulse turbines

and reaction turbines. The kinetic energy of water is used in the impulse turbine, which is

typically used in systems with high head and flow. This form of turbine is simple to maintain and

manufacture. Reaction turbines, on the other hand, create power by the mutual action of pressure

and moving water and are typically used in low-head settings. When the rotor is completely

immersed in water, this kind of turbine runs. Additionally, these two types of turbines have

different sub-types that are utilized on specific locations, and as previously said, there are

variables that must be considered before selecting the ideal turbine for the generator.

In the study of Fesalbon and Blanco (2019). Hydropower dam site selection and

visualization using GIS and RS techniques: A case of Marinduque, Philippines. As the demand

for energy grows, the development of renewable energy systems becomes increasingly
important. If used strategically, renewable energy has the potential to be beneficial in a variety of

ways. The Philippines has an abundant of renewable energy sources, including water, which may

be used to generate hydropower which may be advantageous particularly for places with

inconsistent power supplies, for example, islands. The study denotes that based on its physical

qualities, the island of Marinduque offers potential for hydropower development. The valley

determination and flow accumulation approaches were applied in this study to locate natural

reservoirs for prospective dam building. The selection of dam sites is as important as the

selection of hydro turbines because the flow rate of water is affected by the dam itself. As a

result, the hydro turbine's ability to generate electricity is influenced by the water's flow rate.

In the study of Elbatran, et., al, (2015). Operation, performance and economic analysis of

low head micro-hydropower turbines for rural and remote areas: A review. It is possible to use

micro-hydropower systems to produce enough electricity for a small community or for a home,

farm, or plantation. Low head micropower systems have favorable environmental effects and are

predictable assuming there is sufficient water supply. The primary issue with electricity in rural

and isolated locations is that the expenses is high and adds financial strain. With this problem,

the most advantageous option is micro-hydropower from an economic standpoint. Micro-plants

have a modest runway cost, but the beginning budget may be quite costly. In order to address the

issues of inadequate electric power supply and financial hardship in rural and underdeveloped

areas and ensure a better future for the populace, low head and micro-hydropower are the most

secure alternative solutions. Renewable hydroelectric energy and sustainable development must

be closely related.

As explained in the study of Arnaiz et al. (2018), this study also suggests that micro-

hydropower is the ideal alternative solution for addressing the issues associated with a lack of
electric power supply and financial constraints in certain remote regions because the cost of the

micro-hydropower plant's operation is significantly lower when compared to the cost of large

hydropower plants and is still capable of meeting the needs for power in small areas.

Review of Related Studies

According to the study of Chala, Ma’Arof, and Sharma (2019). Trends in an increased

dependence towards hydropower energy utilization—a short review. Hydropower has brought

many benefits as a source of renewable energy. The advantages of using hydropower as a source

of renewable energy are numerous. The benefits of hydropower can be divided into three

categories: economic, social, and environmental (Arias-Gaviria 2017). Economically, a

hydroelectric power plant could open up work prospects in its construction, operation and

maintenance. The expansion of the hydropower plant contributes greatly to the creation of new

jobs in businesses such as fishing and aquaculture, forest products and craft. Using hydropower

has several environmental benefits, including the potential to reduce pollution and the need for

fossil fuels to produce energy, as well as its ability to assist regulate floods. In some

underdeveloped countries, where billions of people lack access to power, the building of

hydroelectric generators can also improve and sustain livelihoods and help to address the

demands.

In addition to that, concerns about the availability and supply of electricity in rural areas

can be helped by hydropower. The development of navigational conditions, the provision of

flood protection, and the facilitation of water access to the target area all contribute to the
region's and its resources' increased accessibility. It has a wide range of applications in

agriculture, adaptation, and mitigation. Hydropower can aid in the reduction of greenhouse gas

emissions. It has the potential to boost social resilience as well as agricultural production.

Hydropower has offered numerous benefits to both human society and the environment as a

sustainable energy source. It can create electricity without affecting the availability of water.

Because of the flexibility and storage capacity of hydropower plants, it is not intermittent and

can respond swiftly to fluctuations in electricity demand.

According to the study of ÖC Dogmus and JØ Nielsen (2019). Is the hydropower boom

actually taking place? A case study of a South East European country, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In the "hydropower rich" transitional and developing countries of the world, hydropower has

been identified as a possible catalyst for economic growth and the eradication of poverty.

However, excessive planning, complicated administrative procedures, a lack of funding

opportunities, and rampant corruption hinder the development of plans and even stop them from

happening altogether in Bosnia and Herzegovina. If hydropower is sought and the global boom is

to be realized, is not necessarily more plans and funding for plans, but rather research and

subsequent understandings of the factors preventing such plans from coming to fruition.

As an understanding to this statement, hydropower has the potential to be an economic

growth and poverty elimination tool. Hydropower can provide convenience to people residing

around it because it is a cheap source of electricity. According to Manzano-Agugliaro,

hydropower is a clean, renewable, and cheap source of energy as well as providing flood control

and creating a source of water supply (476). But the factors that are preventing such plans from

being implemented are worth serious consideration.

 According to Joe B., Sam W., Julian B., Anh T., Prem B. K., Biraj G., technologies for

renewable energy that do not depend on public utilities play a significant role in enhancing rural

people’s access to power (12). The authors claim that “reliability of the technology, financial

viability and community engagement are identified as the 3 key areas governing the

sustainability of projects.” (Joe B. et al. 12). It was discovered that most operators engaged in

some routine. Yet, there was also proof of a variety of technical issues that may have shown

earlier in the project cycle. Communities generally have the resources necessary to pay their

tariffs on time, however, in other cases; the money plants brought in wasn't enough to pay for

maintenance. Communities were heavily involved in projects and frequently pleased of the effort

put out to advance their local community plants.

Off-grid renewable energy projects' sustainability is crucial for comparing technologies and

learning lessons for the future. Putting new initiatives into motion and providing dependable

electricity services are provided to rural areas. Operators should conduct regular maintenance

and the communities should pay their tariffs promptly in order to suffice the projects longevity.

According to the study of Agaton, Boongaling, and Karl (2018). A real options approach to

renewable electricity generation in the Philippines. Incorporating localized renewable energy

sources can serve as a solution for the future because they are plentiful, unrenewable, clean, and

conveniently accessible. They also represent an affordable alternative source of energy.

However, despite the nation's enormous potential for producing renewable energy, investments

in renewable energy projects are hindered by competitive fossil fuel prices, more advanced fossil

fuel technology, and extremely high investment costs for renewable energy. Additionally, the

study denotes that switching the diesel-powered power plant in the Philippines over to energy

generated from renewable sources will reduce the country's reliance on fossil fuels and help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The study's analysis comes to the conclusion that switching to

renewable energy sources like geothermal and hydropower is a better option than continuing to

use imported diesel for a developing nation that is heavily dependent on imported fuel. In this

approach, the rate of greenhouse gas emissions would be reduced, as well as the risk of global

warming.

In the study of Hatata, El-Saadawi, and Saad (2019). A feasibility study of small hydro

power for selected locations in Egypt. The most suitable technique for producing renewable

energy has been determined to be small hydropower and that the hydro-turbine for this type of

hydropower needs a low head and flow to operate, subsequently it is built to be a run-of-river

type. As noted in prior research, the selection of the most appropriate turbines is dependent on

both the flow rate and water head at the selected site, and hydropower turbines have

classifications of turbines that are best employed on specific locations. The quantity and head of

falling water are the two parameters that must be taken into account while choosing a hydro

turbine regardless of the site's water path. There are various benefits associated with hydropower,

these include its low operating and maintenance costs, as well as the fact that it does not emit

greenhouse gases or pollute the environment. Hydropower plants have different capacities

depending on which type, large-scale hydropower plants have over 100 MW (megawatts)

capacity whereas small hydropower plants have less than 10 MW (megawatts) capacity, and a

micro-hydropower plant has a total capacity of 5-10 kW (kilowatts). These types of hydropower

plants are built depending on the chosen site or the location chosen for the generation of energy.

In accordance to the study of Manzano-Agugliaro, et., al. (2017). An overview of

research and energy evolution for small hydropower in Europe. A benefit of small hydropower

plants for rural electrification is their ability to react rapidly to sudden changes in the demand for
electricity in rural regions. However, according to this study of renewable energies, hydropower

is not widely explored due to its matured and established technology. Nevertheless, there has

been a resurgence of interest in using small hydropower facilities as a source of energy for

electricity in rural areas. The use of renewable energy technologies, such as hydroelectric power

producers, can be financially advantageous, particularly in developing countries. Furthermore,

the use of renewable energy such as hydropower is significant in the transition to zero-carbon

energy.

This study may be supported by Kaunda, Kimambo, and Nielsen (2012) where they have

explained that small-scale hydropower projects may be one of the solutions for limited

development of hydropower in many nations. Small-hydropower plant could help increase

national access to energy, lessen the rate of greenhouse gas emissions, decreasing the

consequences of climate change, and could be the solution for economic development for

sustainable growth.

According to the study of Torrefranca, Otadoy, and Tongco (2022). Incorporating

Landscape Dynamics in Small-Scale Hydropower Site Location Using a GIS and Spatial

Analysis Tool: The Case of Bohol, Central Philippines. One of the world's renewable energy

sources is hydropower, which has great potential in the Philippines. One notable attribute of

hydropower sources in general is that they emit fewer greenhouse gases, which is favorable to

the environment. It has also become less expensive than using diesel-powered power plants

which also has negative effects in the environment. Hydropower generates electricity by

converting moving water into mechanical turbines. The quantity of power produced is related to

the head and flow. Small-scale hydropower is the main emphasis of this study; hence it has been

highlighted that this form of hydropower is dependent on the river's available head and adequate
water flow. It is dependent on the river water since small-scale hydropower plants are run-of-

river power plants that require a low head and flow rate for the turbine to produce energy.

Moreover, it is also stated in other studies that small-hydropower plant is not just

remarkable for less greenhouse gas emissions but can also provide energy to areas that do not

have access to electricity. Despite the size of the power plant, it is reliable in generating

electricity and is also less expensive, helps in maintaining water supply, and controls flood. With

the assistance of a small hydropower plant, those without access to energy will be provided, and

the frequency of power outages will decrease.

In the study of Koukouvinis, Phoeves, and Anagnostopoulos (2023). State of the Art in

Designing Fish-Friendly Turbines: Concepts and Performance Indicators. The oldest type of

renewable energy resource, hydropower has seen its importance steadily rise through time.

Additionally, a significant portion of the world's energy is produced through the use of

hydropower, which can potentially be a very effective method for storing energy. Despite being a

good source of renewable energy, it has detrimental effects on the local ecosystem and aquatic

life, including the outright extinction of plant and animal habitats. The building along with

access to previously inaccessible locations also cause indirect disruptions to local life.

Furthermore, by producing a reservoir, it might disturb the natural flow of water streams and

induce fish mortality due to turbine designs. Additionally, the study offers many categories of

stator (impulse turbines) and rotor (reaction turbines) configurations that can be applied and are

fish-friendly in order to prevent fish injuries during passing through the turbine. The study

introduced Pelton turbines, an impulse turbine, and Francis turbines, a reaction turbine, as fish-

friendly turbines that can be used to reduce fish death when flowing through the generators. The
development of such fish-friendly designs at greater operating heads and other turbine types is

certainly a future task.

According to the study of Aljafari (2016). Recent Trends in Hydroelectric Power

Technology. The use of hydropower, which has been around for generations, is crucial to

achieving Europe's energy and climate goals. The growing integration of renewable energy

sources into the European power system is a significant accomplishment of hydropower. Due to

its quick response time to any changes in demand, extended lifespan, and other distinctive

qualities, hydropower plays a vital role in the nation's power supply. Utilizing water, which is the

most trustworthy resource, is valuable thanks to hydropower. According to the study the

technology with the lowest greenhouse gas emissions and the least negative effects on the

climate is hydropower, which also produces electricity and when it comes to electricity output,

hydropower has a wide range of flexibility. Furthermore, it immediately delivers to the system in

order to satisfy the power requirement. In reality, hydroelectric pumped storage facilities are the

only significant option to store electricity that is currently accessible. Since it addresses the issue

of the world's energy demand and lowers greenhouse gas emissions, hydropower technology is

dependable and developed and plays a part in a sustainable energy future.

Moreover, in the study conducted by Kosnik (2008). The potential of water power in the

fight against global warming in the US. Global warming has become a growing issue for

countries around the world, and lowering greenhouse gases would contribute to global warming.

The best way to deal with the problem is to utilize renewable energy sources that require fewer

fossil fuels. Hydropower production can be a useful way to address the issue of climate change

and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, even though it will never be the only option for producing

energy that is emissions-free. This is because water is the primary component in this renewable
energy source. The kinetic energy of falling water diverted from a riverway or impounded by a

dam is used to generate hydroelectric electricity. According to the study, there are three broad

sizes of hydropower plants: large, small, and micro hydropower plants and as per Hatata, El-

Saadawi, and Saad (2019) these power plants are constructed based on the location chosen and

available funds for building.

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Review of Related Literatures

Sommers, Garold L., and Richard T. Hunt. “DOE Hydropower Program Annual Report for FY

2002.” No. DOE/ID-11107. Idaho National Lab. (INL), Idaho Falls, ID (United States),

2003.

Kaunda, Chiyembekezo S., Cuthbert Z. Kimambo, and Torbjorn K. Nielsen. "Hydropower in the

context of sustainable energy supply: a review of technologies and

challenges." International Scholarly Research Notices 2012 (2012).

Okot, David Kilama. "Review of small hydropower technology." Renewable and Sustainable

Energy Reviews 26 (2013): 515-520.

Elbatran, A. H., et al. "Operation, performance and economic analysis of low head micro-

hydropower turbines for rural and remote areas: A review." Renewable and Sustainable

Energy Reviews 43 (2015): 40-50.

Yah, Nor F., Ahmed N. Oumer, and Mat S. Idris. "Small scale hydro-power as a source of

renewable energy in Malaysia: A review." Renewable and Sustainable Energy

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Arnaiz, M., et al. "Micro-hydropower impact on communities' livelihood analysed with the

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Mondal, Md Alam Hossain, et al. "The Philippines energy future and low-carbon development

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Moran, Emilio F., et al. "Sustainable hydropower in the 21st century." Proceedings of the

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Review of Related Studies

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Chala, Girma T., M. I. N. Ma’Arof, and Rakesh Sharma. "Trends in an increased dependence

towards hydropower energy utilization—a short review." Cogent Engineering 6.1 (2019):

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Dogmus, Özge Can, and Jonas Ø. Nielsen. "Is the hydropower boom actually taking place? A

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Hatata, A. Y., M. M. El-Saadawi, and S. Saad. "A feasibility study of small hydro power for

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Torrefranca, Imelida, Roland Emerito Otadoy, and Alejandro Tongco. "Incorporating landscape

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Koukouvinis, Phoevos, and John Anagnostopoulos. "State of the Art in Designing Fish-Friendly

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