ECOLOGY- study of the relationships between the living organisms and their environment.

 No living organism exists in isolation

 Organisms interact with one another and with the chemical and physical components of the non-living
environment.
 Coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel “oikos” meaning “house/ living place” and “logos” which means
“study” or “science of”.

2 SUBDIVISIONS OF STUDY OF ECOLOGY

a. AUTECOLOGY- deals with the relationships between an organism/ population and the environment; study
of individual organism.
Example: Study of ecology of one species of mango (Mangifera indica) tree.
b. SYNECOLOGY- study of groups of organisms which are associated together as a unit. (community
approach)
Example: Studying the whole mango community and its relationship with the environment.

APPROACHES TO ECOLOGY
1. ECOSYSTEM APPROACH- living world and its habitat
Example: aquatic and terrestrial
2. COMMUNITY APPROACH (Synecology)- it involves the identification and description of community (biotic
group)
3. POPULATION (Autecology)
 Natality
 Mortality
 Survivorship
4. HABITAT- well defined locality in which an organism lives; convenient to study because of specific habitat.
5. EVOLUTIONARY- changes since life evolved; most difficult
Example: pollen analysis, fossil analysis
IMPORTANT TERMS IN ECOLOGY
 POPULATION- group of organisms belonging to the same species living together in a certain locality.
Example: tilapia living in a pond
 COMMUNITY- group of organisms belonging to different species living together and interacting in a certain
area or habitat.
Example: CLSU community which includes all people, plants, animals and microorganisms thriving here.
 ECOSYSTEM- group of organisms and their interaction/ interrelationships with the non-living environment.
- interaction of living organisms and the non-living organisms.
Example: CLSU Community and its interaction with the soil, atmosphere water, sunlight, climate and
temperature.
 BIOSPHERE- all living organisms on/ around the earth.
 ECOLOGICAL NICHE- physical space occupied by an organism and its functional role in the ecosystem.
 HABITAT- place where an organism lives.

THE ECOSYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS

ECOSYSTEM- interaction of the living organisms and the non-living organisms.

2 COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
1. BIOTIC COMPONENTS- living components of the ecosystem such as plants (producers), animals
(consumers) and the microorganism (decomposer).
2. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS- non-living components of the ecosystem such as air, water, soil, inorganic
substances(C,N,CO2etc) and organic substances (Protei, Carbohydatres, Lipids, Nucleic Acid etc)

Because of the interaction of abiotic and biotic components, if one population of organisms becomes
extinct or the temperature increases, these modifications can make the ecosystem unstable.

2 COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM FROM TROPHIC VIEW OF POINT

1. AUTOTROPHS- organisms that fix light energy and use of simple inorganic substances to build up complex
substances.
Example: plants
2. HETEROTOPHS- organisms that utilize rearrange and decompose the complex materials.
Example: animals, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
All life on earth is directly/ indirectly dependent on plants.
I. PRODUCER: converts simple inorganic molecules into organic molecules by the process of
photosynthesis.
II. CONSUMER: use organic matter as a source of food
 a. HERBIVORE- eat plants directly- primary consumer
(grasshopper, elk, humans)
b. CARNIVORE- ingest/ kills other animals for their food- secondary consumer.
c. OMNIVORES- eats both plants and animals
(pigs, rats, cockroaches and man)
d. SCAVENGER- eats meat, but often gets it from animals that died by accident, illness, or killed by
other animals.
e. PARASITE- lives in or on other living organisms and gets its food from it.
(tapeworm, bacteria and some insects)
III. DECOMPOSER: returns organic matter to inorganic material; complete the recycling of atoms.

INTERACTIONS AMONG ORGANISMS

Mutualism- a biological interaction in which the growth and survival of both interacting species are enhanced.
- Form of symbiosis
- In nature, neither species can survive without the other.
- Lichens are example.
- Legumes are incapable of directly fixing nitrogen. In their roots lives the nitrogen fixing bacteria.
The bacteria feed upon carbohydrates produced by the legumes, and in turn the legumes obtain a
usable form of nitrogen fixed by bacteria; as the legumes die and decompose the nitrogen from
their organic molecule is again released as NH3 or NH4 and become available to other plants.

Competition- Is a type of interaction between two populations in which they vie for limited resources.
- Competition in plants is therefore manifested largely in terms of “struggle for light”

Commensalism- Is a type of interaction between two species populations where one population benefits and the
other is unaffected.
- Among commensals are epiphytes (orchids); they are plants that grow on trees.
- These plants depend on trees for support only, their roots draw nourishment from humid air and
does not affect the tree where they are attached to.

Parasitism- Is a type of interaction between a host and a parasite.

- Destructive symbiosis where the parasite harms the host symbiosis of which one partly benefits at
the expense of others.
- Parasites are organisms, plants and animals or microbes that attach themselves to another
organism, the host, and feed on the host over a period of time without killing it immediately but
usually doing harm on it.
- Typically these parasites do not kill their host as predators do, although the host may die from
secondary infection, or suffer from stunted growth, emanciation and/ or sterility.

Predation- Is the relationship between the prey and the predator.

- It is the feeding of free living organisms and other organisms.
- The predator is generally larger than the prey.
- It includes herbivory, parasitism and cannibalism the latter is a special form of intraspecific
predation which is more widespread and important in the animal kingdom.

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
1. HYDROSPHERE (water)
Water is the most unusual natural compound found on earth and one of the most important. Water is
essential to the maintenance of all life. Water covers 71% of the earth’s surface and it is the medium of transport
for several ecosystems.

PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. UNIVERSAL SOLVENT (transports and dissolves)- it dissolves minerals and nutrients in the soil through rain.
2. HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT- Water absorbs heat, thereby regulating temperature; constant temperature.
3. BUFFERED MEDIUM -
 Neutralizer of acidity and alkalinity
 Protective medium for different kinds of organisms in changes of pH levels.
4. BUOYANCY
 Fairly viscous liquid which enable fish to swim in a simple manner and allows organisms to float.

5. SURFACE TENSION- higher than any other natural liquid other than mercury
 For translocation through capillary action
 BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF WATER
 Dissolves minerals and nutrients for use by the living organisms in the natural processes.
 Reagent in hydrolysis
 Support for aquatic life
 Needed in the fertilization of surviving gametes
 Dispersal of seeds, gametes, and larval stages of aquatic organisms.
 Medium of dispersal and germination of seeds of organisms.
 Reagent in photosynthesis
 Needed in osmosis and turgidity
 Transpiration
 Translocation of microorganism and organic compounds.
 Habitat for aquatic organisms.

II. LITHOSPHERE (solid earth)

 Source of minerals, nutrients and water
 Habitat
a. SOIL- complex mixture of rock fragments, highly altered minerals, organic debris and
living organisms which support plants in terrestrial environment.
b. ROCKS- consolidated units of the earth’s crust which are formed of minerals that come
together by hardening/ lithification of sediments, by solidification from a molten mass/ by
alteration with a pre- existing rocks.
c. SEDIMENTS- rock fragment that may/ may not br chemically altered by weathering
which are carried by media such as wind or water.
ROLES:
a. SOIL- source of all nutrients and water to living organisms in terrestrial ecosystem
- Serves as environmental control to terrestrial biotic communities
- Medium for plant growth and serves as water and minerals reservoirs
- The nutrient and moisture contents of soil act as environmental controls that determine the types
and distribution of vegetation and consequently animal life.
- Size of soil particles affects the water holding capacity of soil
b. ROCKS- facilitates storage and movement of ground water, source of mineral constituents of sediments
and soils and a medium of storage and transportation for ground water.
- When it dissolves through the process of weathering, it becomes soil.
c. SEDIMENTS- habitat for aquatic organisms and source of nutrients

III. ATMOSPHERE
- Troposphere is the medium of weather and different gases which are needed by the living
organisms.
- Stratosphere, also known as the ozone layer, absorbs the UV from the sun thus preventing it to
reach the surface of the earth.
 Average Composition of dry Air in the Atmosphere

CLIMATE/ CLIMATIC FACTORS

b. LIGHT- ultimate source of energy in the biosphere is the sun

- Significantly, influence living organisms morphologically and physiologically. Likewise, it
also affects the distribution
Example: The rate of photosynthesis is affected by intensity and quality of light;
Leaf-fall, flowering and seed dormancy is influenced by day-length/ photoperiodism
c. TEMPERATURE- affects the biotic community directly/ indirectly
- Direct effect: controls their body chemistry, they have temperature requirements
ranging from 0- 50 C for their metabolism.
- The minimum, maximum and optimum temperature requirements vary among species.
- It indirectly affects the organisms through its effect on the rate of evaporation which
significantly influences water availability on land.
d. WIND- air in motion
- Velocity of wind influences the rate of evaporation of water from the earth’s surface.
- It accelerates evaporation of water from leaf urfaces, transpiration.
- Violent winds directly cause physical damage to plant structures in particular and bring
havoc to the biotic community in general.
TOPOGRAPHY- surface relief
- Influences the distribution of biotic communities on land
- Topographic factors define the amount of solar energy which influences the climatic
conditions
 ROLE OF HUMANS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Humans are the most important organisms in the biosphere; have a great direct/ indirect effect in all the
ecosystems. Before going to different roles/ functions of humans discuss first the meaning of Ecological Dominance.

THE CONCEPT OF ECOLOGICAL DOMINANCE Dominant species can compete more successfully than any other organisms for
essentials of life in the same habitat/ physical environment and can exert a greater influence on the habitat in which they
live and on other living components thriving on it.
On the other hand, ecological dominance can be attained because of size/ number, Example are the trees in the
forest. They can modify physical factors such as light, temperature and humidity. Ecological dominance can also be achieved
by aggressiveness, lack of predators and intelligence.

1. HUMANS AS THE ECOLOGICAL DOMINANTS

Humans are considered the most dominant species because of their mental and emotional characteristics that allow them
to compete more successfully, for what they want.
Humans are distinct species of animals. They can interbreed but cannot cross breed with any other species.
They share many anatomical and physiological features with other animals particularly primates animals but differs in
certain features.
a. Humans have a completely upright posture combined with a bipedal locomotion.
b. Humans have hands with large, well-developed thumbs which makes them capable of grasping, clinging
and holding.
c. Human brain is exceptionally large in proportion to the size of the body. Considered as the most intelligent
among the living organisms on earth.
2. HUMANS AS TOOL MAKING ANIMALS
 Humans are the only animals that use tools to make tools. This trait is closely related to their upright
position, which leaves their hands free to work. High degree of inventiveness is due to superior brain. They
design their tools for the basic process of:
a. Killing animals for food.
b. Digging the ground and cultivating plants.
c. Making clothing and shelter.
d. Moving from one place to another.
 The three most important initial technical advances were discovery and use of fire, use of digging
implements and reinvention of wheel.
3. HUMANS ARE ROBBER ANIMALS
 Humans are characterized as the most explosive of all animals, they have been called the “ Robber Animals
“. They make greater use of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem than any other organisms. Their needs
are more diverse than other animals.
 Over Cropping
 Overgrazing
 Non- Consumptive uses/ purely domestic purposes
Plants- purely decorative and ornamental purposes
Animals- domesticated as pets, friends and companions for pleasure.
4. HUMANS AS AGENT OF EVOLUTION
 Most powerful agent in the process of organic evolution and to increased technical skills and knowledge.
 Rate of organic evolution accurate as result of accidental and delivered disturbance of the ecosystems.
 Many plants and animals species have their population reduced to critic level/ become extinct, others
have incomplete in number while many new varieties, species have emerged as a consequence of direct
and indirect human intervention.
Human have exerted a powerful influence in the course of evolution due the ff:
a. Domestication of plants and animals.
b. Creations of new habitats
c. Worldwide dispersal of plants and animals.\
d. Biotechnology / genetic engineer.
5. HUMANS ARE DIRTY ANIMALS
 Humans are only animals that “ foul their own needs “ and pollute their environment. They creates
additional organic waste.
 These wastes material that are non- biodegradable which are show in decomposing.
Lastly, they produce toxic waste material in greater and more concentrated amount than natural.

POPULATION
Population- collective group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space.

STATISTICAL PROPERTIES
A. Population Density- Population size in relation to some unit of space. It is expressed as the number of
individuals/ population biomass per unit area or volume. The formula for getting the population density is
as follows:

Pd = number of individuals or population biomass

Unit area or volume

Example: 200 trees per acre, 25 trees per square meter, 5 million diatoms per cubic meter of water. Unit can be
dry weight, DNA or RNA Content.
2 Types of Population Density
1. Crude density- the number (or biomass) per unit total space.
2. Specific/ Ecological Density- the number (or biomass) per unit of habitat space available area or volume
that can actually be colonized by a population. It is important to know whether the population is changing
to know its size at any one moment.

B. NATALITY- inherent ability of a population to increase.

- it is equivalent to “birth rate”
- it is a broader term covering the production of new individuals of any organism whether such new
individuals are “born”, “hatched”, “germinated” or “arise by division”.
- Expressed as a rate determined by dividing the number of new individuals per unit of time per unit
of population.

N= number of new individuals per unit of time

Total number of population

2 Types of Population Natality

1. Maximum- sometimes called absolute physiological

- theoretical maximum production of new individuals under ideal condition (being limited only by
physiological factors)
2. Ecological/ Realized natality- refers to population increase under an actual or specific environmental
condition.

C. Mortality- refers to death rate of individuals in the population.

- expressed as the number of individuals dying in a given period.

M= number of individuals dying per unit of time

Total number of population

Types
a. Ecological or Realized Mortality- where there is loss of individual under given environmental
conditions.
- not constant but varies with population and environmental conditions.
- Survival rate is of greater interest than the death rate.
- Death rate= M
- Survival rate= M-1.

D. Migration- the rate of population change for a certain area is affected by the movement of people into
(IMMIGRATION) and out of (EMIGRATION) that area.
- Movement of people from one place to another to reside permanently for a certain period of
time.
- Migration in a certain area can be known in terms of net migration rate.
 NET MIGRATION RATE- refers to the difference between the number of people who enter the country
(immigration) and the number of people who leave (emigration), per year per 1000 persons in the population.
It is calculated by the formula:

Population Change birth deaths

+ - +
immigration emigration

E. Population Age Distribution- important population property which influences both natality and mortality.
- the ratio of the various age groups in a population determines the current reproductive status of the
population and indicates what maybe expected in the future.
- Usually a rapid expanding population will contain a large proportion of young individuals; a stationary
population a more even distribution of age classes and a declining population, a large proportion of old
individuals

FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES

PRODUCTIVITY- measure of the rate at which photosynthesis produces biomass made of energy-rich compounds.
- Primary productivity is the rate of biomass production, an indication of the arte of solar energy
conversion to chemical energy.
- Net primary productivity is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful
chemical energy.

DIVERSITY- measure of the number of different species, ecological richness or genetic variation present.
- All species of plants, animals and microorganism and the ecosystem and ecological process of
which they are part.
- Umbrella term for the degree of nature’s variety, including both the number and frequency of
ecosystems, or gene in a given assemblage.

3 categories of Biodiversity

1. GENETIC DIVERSITY- Sum total of genetic information contained in the genes within particular species.\
- Refers to the difference in genetic make-up between distinct species and to genetic variations
within a single species.
- Genetic variations determine the particular characteristics of individual within the species.

2.SPECIES DIVERSITY- Variety of living organisms on earth.

- Number of species or the range of different types of species in an area.
3. ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY- Variety of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the biosphere.

ABUNDANCE- Total number of organism in a biological community

- Inversely related to the total diversity
Communities with a very large number of species often have only a few members of any given species
in a particular area. As a general rule, diversity increases but abundance within species increases.

Species richness-

Species evenness-

COMPLEXITY AND CONNECTEDNESS- related to diversity

 Complexity refers to the number of species at each trophic level and the number of the trophic levels in a
community
 A diverse community, may not be very complex if all its species are clustered in only a few trophic level and
form a relatively simple food chain.
 A complex, highly interconnected community might have many trophic levels, some of which can be
compartmentalized into subdivisions.
 Herbivores can be group into “guild” based on the specialized ways they feed on plants.
 Fruit eaters, leaf nibblers, rootborers, seed gnawers and sap suckers

Distribution in a community can be vertical as well as horizontal

TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

Terrestrial Ecosystems

DESERTS
Location: Sahara, Asia, Australia, Chile
Climate and Soils: Very dry; hot days and cold nights. Rainfall less than 10 inches/yr. Soils thin and porous. Vegetation: Cacti;
thorny bushes and shrubs. Animals: Rodents, lizards, snakes and reptiles.
Environmental concerns: Expanding due to overgrazing and deforestation of marginal lands and global warming.

GRASSLANDS
Location: Central North America, Central Russia, Siberia, Northern Australia. Climate and Soils: Highly seasonal; Rainfall between
10 to 60 inches/yr; hot and dry in summer and dry seasons. Fires frequent. Soils rich and often deep. Vegetation: Numerous
grass species; sparse bushes. Animals: Bison, antelopes, horses, kangaroos, giraffes, zebras, birds, etc.
Environmental Concerns: Conversion to croplands; use as rangelands; overgrazing causing erosion and desertification.

TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
Location: South America, Central America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Philippines. Climate and Soils: High rainfall (> 95 inches/yr.),
high humidity, high light intensity, high temperature > 28 oC. Soils thin and often acidic and nutrient-poor. Vegetation: Diverse
species of trees, lianas and epiphytes. Animals: Enormous biodiversity-insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, monkeys and other
mammals. Environmental Concerns: Deforestation due to illegal logging, forest fires, soil erosion, kaingin system, loss of
biodiversity.

DECIDUOUS FORESTS
Location: Western and Central Europe, Eastern Asia, North America, Japan, Australia, Part of China and Siberia. Climate and
Soils: Seasonal; temperature below freezing in winter, summers often warm and humid. Rainfall ranging from 30 to 80 inches/yr.
Soils well developed and rich. Vegetation: Oaks, hickories, maples, beech, ferns, lichens. Animals: Squirrels, chipmunks, foxes,
black bear, deer, birds, hares, opossums. Environmental Concerns: Illegal logging/cutting of trees which lead to soil erosion,
nutrient loss and loss of biodiversity. Acid rain/precipitation and global warming can lead to biodiversity loss. Overharvesting and
uneconomical use of the resource.

CONIFEROUS FORESTS
Location: Europe, Asia, North America Climate and Soils: Seasonal, winters usually long and cold. Soils acidic and humus-rich,
much litter. Vegetation: Spruces, fir, pine, hemlock and alders. Animals: Mule deer, moose, elk, caribou; mice, squirrels, lynx,
foxes, bears. Environmental Concerns: Acid rain; overharvesting of trees, pesticide spraying to control insect.

TUNDRA
Location: Northern Hemisphere Climate and Soils: Rainfall less than 10 inches/yr. bitter cold. Soils thin and underlain by
permanent frost. Vegetation: Lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges, and dwarf shrubs. Animals: Lemmings, arctic hares, arctic fox,
lynx, snowy owls, caribou, musk ox. Environmental Concerns: Oil exploration.

Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater Ecosystem
a. Lentic – standing water habitats Ex. Lakes, Ponds, Bogs, Swamp, Marshes
b. Lotic – running water habitats Ex. Springs, Mountain Brooks, Streams, River

• Saltwater/Marine Ecosystem
a. Brackish water b. Open Ocean
c. Estuaries d. Coastal ecosystem

WETLANDS
Environmental parameters: Shallow systems, seasonally wet. Sediment is black and rich, anaerobic below the surface.
Vegetation: Marshes – cattails, sedges Swamps – red maple and cedars Bogs - sphagnum moss, low shrubs Animals:
Amphibians, reptiles, fish, invertebrates, birds, ducks, geese, alligators. Environmental concerns: Toxic chemicals, conversion to
residential areas and agricultural lands, use as dumpsites.

LAKES & RIVERS

Environmental parameters: Seasonal nutrient stratification in lakes; one way currents in rivers and streams. Vegetation:
Phytoplankton, rooted vegetation, macrophytes, water lilies, water hyacinths. Animals: Crustaceans, clams, snails, insect larvae,
reptiles, amphibians, fish. Environmental concerns: Toxic chemicals. eutrophication, biological pollution, sedimentation, acid
depositions.

ESTUARIES
Environmental parameters: Mixing of fresh and salt water rich in nutrients and suspended sediments. Vegetation: Phytoplankton,
eelgrass and kelps. Animals: Zooplankton, shellfish, crustacean, shrimps, fish. Environmental concerns: Eutrophication,
conversion to residential areas and commercial buildings, overharvesting of fish and shellfish, pollution.

CORAL REEFS
Environmental parameters: Presence of tidal currents to promote mixing of water. Vegetation: Phytoplankton, symbiotic algae,
benthic plants. Animals: Zooplankton, worms, shellfish, crustaceans, abundant fish, jellyfish, turtle, etc. Environmental concerns:
Pollution, sea level rise, overfishing, dynamite and cyanide fishing, global warming which cause coral bleaching.
OPEN OCEAN
Environmental parameters: Great depths up to 11,000 meters, nutrient-poor. Vegetation: Phytoplankton Animals: Zooplankton,
whales, dolphins, tuna, sharks, squid. Environmental concerns: Ozone depletion, whaling, pollution, red tide, oil pollution.

AGROECOSYSTEM - An ecosystem which is modified or regulated by man in order to produce food.

 the farmer decides the plant (species & variety) to grow
 composed of one or few species only, wherein the flora is simple
 the age and status of growing plants is uniform
 the farmer supplies water and fertilizer uniformly
 the farmers harvests the products and remove them all away from the yield (continuity is short)
 insect fauna is simple (comprising of their pests and natural enemies
 there is an order of arriving of organisms: crops, pests and natural enemies
 ecologically unstable due to simple flora & fauna and low natural control effect
 chances of pest outbreak is high.

PRODUCTIVITY is the desired output of a system or output of valued product per unit resource input. It is measured in terms of
crop yield or net income.
STABILITY is the property of short-term homeostasis or the consistency of productivity in the face of small, disturbing forces
arising from the normal fluctuations and cycles in the surrounding environment.
SUSTAINABILITY is ability of the system to persist in the face of repeated stress or major perturbation or it is the ability of the
agroecosystem to maintain productivity when subjected to major disturbing force.
EQUITABILITY is the evenness of distribution of the productivity of the agroecosystem among the human beneficiaries, i.e. the
level of equity that is generated.
AUTONOMY is the extent to which a social system is able to function at a normal level, using only resources derived from the
ecosystem over which it has effective control.
SOLIDARITY is the ability of the social system to make and implement decisions in managing ecosystem.

Problems affecting Agroecosystems

Soil Erosion Overgrazing Desertification Depletion of Ground Water
Salinization Pollution Land Conversion Loss of Genetic Diversity

URBAN ECOSYSTEM
Problems
• Scarcity of trees, shrubs and other natural vegetation
• Alteration of local and regional climate which cause “urban heat island”
• Lack of water
• Rapid runoff of water from asphalt and concrete
• Production of large quantities of air pollution, water pollution, garbage and other solid wastes.
• Excessive noise

Ecological succession

Ecological succession, is the phenomenon or process by which a community progressively transforms itself until a
stable community is formed. It is a fundamental concept in ecology, refers to more or less predictable and orderly
changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community. Succession may be initiated either by
formation of new, unoccupied habitat.

History of the theory. The idea of ecological succession goes back to the 14th century. The French
naturalist Adolphe Dureau de la Malle was the first to make use of the word succession about the
vegetation development after forest clear-felling. In 1859 Henry David Thoreau wrote an address called
"The Succession of Forest Trees" in which he described succession in an Oak-Pine forest.

Types of succession

 Primary succession - If the development begins on an area that has not been previously occupied
by a community, such as a newly exposed rock or sand surface, a lava flow, glacial tills, or a newly
formed lake, the process is known as primary succession.
 If the community development is proceeding in an area from which a community was removed it
is called secondary succession. Secondary succession arises on sites where the vegetation cover
has been disturbed by humans or other animals (an abandoned crop field or cut-over forest, or
natural forces such as water, wind storms, and floods.)
 Seasonal and cyclic - Unlike secondary succession, these types of vegetation change are
not dependent on disturbance but are periodic changes arising from fluctuating species
interactions or recurring events. These models propose a modification to the climax
concept towards one of dynamic states.
 Causes of plant succession
1. Autogenic succession can be brought by changes in the soil caused by the organisms there.
These changes include accumulation of organic matter in litter or humic layer, alteration of soil
nutrients, change in pH of soil by plants growing there. The structure of the plants themselves can
also alter the community.
2. Allogenic succession is caused by external environmental influences and not by the vegetation.
For example soil changes due to erosion, leaching or the deposition of silt and clays can alter the
nutrient content and water relationships in the ecosystems. Animals also play an important role in
allogenic changes as they are pollinators, seed dispersers and herbivores.
Climatic factors may be very important, but on a much longer time-scale than any other. Changes in
temperature and rainfall patterns will promote changes in communities.

Frederick .E. Clement (1916) developed a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general ecological
concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological thought. Clement's concept is usually
termed classical ecological theory. According to Clement, succession is a process involving several phases:

1. Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation (disturbance).
2. Migration: It refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis: It involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
4. Competition: As vegetation became well established, grew, and spread, various species began to
compete for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called competition.
5. Reaction: During this phase autogenic changes affect the habitat resulting in replacement of one
plant community by another.
6. Stabilization: Reaction phase leads to development of a climax community.

Seral communities. A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards its
climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained. [2] A
prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax
community. Depending on the substratum and climate, a seral community can be one of the following:
Hydrosere Community in freshwater
Lithosere Community on rock
Psammosere Community on sand
Xerosere Community in dry area
Halosere Community in saline body (e.g. a marsh)

The climax concept. According to classical ecological theory, succession stops when the sere has arrived
at an equilibrium or steady state with the physical and biotic environment. Barring major disturbances,
it will persist indefinitely. This end point of succession is called climax.
Climax community. The final or stable community in a sere is the climax community or climatic
vegetation. It is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual
accumulation of organic matter in a climax community mostly. The annual production and use of energy
is balanced in such a community.

Characteristics of climax
 The vegetation is tolerant of environmental conditions.
 It has a wide diversity of species, a well-drained spatial structure, and complex food chains.
 The climax ecosystem is balanced. There is equilibrium between gross primary production and
total respiration, between energy used from sunlight and energy released by decomposition,
between uptake of nutrients from the soil and the return of nutrient by litter fall to the soil.
 Individuals in the climax stage are replaced by others of the same kind. Thus the species
composition maintains equilibrium.
 It is an index of the climate of the area. The life or growth forms indicate the climatic type.

Types of climax
Climatic Climax - If there is only a single climax and the development of climax community is controlled
by the climate of the region, it is termed as climatic climax
Edaphic Climax
 When there are more than one climax communities in the region, modified by local conditions of
the substrate such as soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal
activity, it is called edaphic climax. Succession ends in an edaphic climax where topography, soil,
water, fire, or other disturbances are such that a climatic climax cannot develop.
Catastrophic Climax
Climax vegetation vulnerable to a catastrophic event such as a wildfire. For example, in California,
chaparral vegetation is the final vegetation. The wildfire removes the mature vegetation and
decomposers. A rapid development of herbaceous vegetation follows until the shrub dominance
is re-established. This is known as catastrophic climax.
Disclimax
When a stable community, which is not the climatic or edaphic climax for the given site, is
maintained by man or his domestic animals, it is designated as Disclimax (disturbance climax) or
anthropogenic subclimax (man-generated). For example, overgrazing by stock may produce a
desert community of bushes and cacti where the local climate actually would allow grassland to
maintain itself.
Subclimax
The prolonged stage in succession just preceding the climatic climax is subclimax.
Preclimax and Postclimax
In certain areas different climax communities develop under similar climatic conditions. If the
community has life forms lower than those in the expected climatic climax, it is called preclimax;
a community that has life forms higher than those in the expected climatic climax is postclimax.
Preclimax strips develop in less moist and hotter areas, whereas Postclimax strands develop in
more moist and cooler areas than that of surrounding climate.

Comparison of plant, community, and ecosystem characteristics between early and late stages of
succession

Early Stages of Late Stages of

Attribute
Succession Succession
Plant Biomass Small Large
Plant Longevity Short Long
Poorly
Seed Dispersal Characteristics of Dominant Plants Well dispersed
dispersed
Plant Morphology and Physiology Simple Complex
Photosynthetic Efficiency of Dominant Plants at Low Light Low High
Rate of Soil Nutrient Resource Consumption by Plants Fast Slow
Plant Recovery Rate from Resource Limitation Fast Slow
Plant Leaf Canopy Structure Multilayered Monolayer
Living Biomass
Site of Nutrient Storage Litter and Soil
and Litter
Role of Decomposers in Cycling Nutrients to Plants Minor Great
Closed and
Biogeochemical Cycling Open and Rapid
Slow
Rate of Net Primary Productivity High Low
Moderate
Community Site Characteristics Extreme
(Mesic)
Importance of Macroenvironment on Plant Success Great Moderate
Ecosystem Stability Low High
Plant Species Diversity Low High
Life-History Type r K
Seed Longevity Long Short