Joseph Piriano

PHYS 506
4/29/2022

Speed of Light
Abstract

The purpose of this lab was to successfully remeasure the speed of light. In order to do
this, we used a procedure called the Foucault method. This method uses a rotating mirror to
reflect a laser to a fixed mirror which creates two separate beams, by using the angular
displacement of these two beams with their relation to time we were able to measure two values
for the speed of light: 2.98*10^8 M/S and 3.27*10^8 M/S.

Introduction

The speed of light is arguably one of the most important measurement science has made
over the past few hundred year. Not only does it set an upper limit for any object’s velocity, but
also sets a constant for the speed of any light source regardless of if it’s a modern-day flashlight
or an old fashion gas lit lantern. The history behind the experiments to find this measurement
were almost as diverse as the “constants” that each one of them measured. Galileo was one of the
first to attempt to measure the speed of light by the use of a very simple experiment. Two people,
each with a lantern, stood on opposite hill tops a mile apart. The first person would uncover their
lantern, when the second person saw the light from the first lantern, they would also uncover
their lantern. The first person would then time how long it took to see the second lantern.
Unfortunately, this experiment is far from accurate due to the sheer size of the speed of light
mixed with human reaction time did not produce the best results. However, Galileo was able to
conclude that the speed of light was more than 30 KM/S.
Years later, in 1675, a much more accurate measurement of the speed of light was
made by the Danish astronomer Olaf Römer. At the time the speed of light was still being
considered as an infinite quantity, Römer believed that it was more finite due to his observations
of the lunar eclipses occurring on one of Jupiter’s moons. In these observations he noticed that
when the earth is moving away from Jupiter the eclipses lasted for a longer duration. This
relationship is a direct cause of the speed of light. Because the light has a further distance to
travel when the earth is moving away the eclipse lasts longer from the view of the astronomer.
 Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022

After years of these observations Römer was able to calculate the speed of light to be 2.1*10^8
M/S. This measurement is only about 33% too slow which is really close considering the
inaccurate knowledge of the distances between objects in space. However, for the first time in
history, the speed of light is being considered as a finite number rather than an infinite quantity.
The next attempt comes almost two hundred years after in 1849 when
Fizeau came very close to measuring todays accepted value for the constant. The scientist used a
toothed wheel that was quickly rotating to chop a light beam and then measured the time the
beam took the reflect back from a distant mirror, the beam would either be blocked or passed on
to the observer. By measuring the rates at which the returning pulses were coming in Fizeau was
able to measure the speed of light to be 3.15*10^8 M/S, which is only a few percent away of the
currently accepted constant.
Foucault was inspired by this method and was able to make it even
more accurate by replacing the toothed wheel with a rotating mirror. This is the method we
followed in our experiment, but even 1863 he was able to get a velocity of 2.99774*10^8 M/S,
which is remarkably close. In our experiment we will use this method to accurately measure the
speed of light within a few percent.

Theoretical Explanation

The main observation in this experiment is the relationship between the speed of light and
the displacement of the image point, this is all determined by a few main variables; MR, the rate
of motion, the distance between MR and the fixed mirror and the magnification of L2 which is
reliant of the focal length of L2 and also the distances between L2, L1, and MF. These values and
 Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022

their place in the experiment are shown below in figure 1.

To start deriving the equation it is important to consider the path the laser makes during the
course of the experiment. First the beam is focused by L1 to a point S, it is then reflected from MR
to the fixed mirror and then right back to MR. After this the beam travels back through the
beamsplitter and is then refocused creating a new point, S’. The first step to derive an in this
case is look at how the point of reflection on the fixed mirror relates to the rotational angle of
MR. Which can be described by figure 2a and 2b.

Figure 2a proves that the angle of incidence equals the angle of diffraction, showing that the
angle between the two of them is simply 2θ. Where figure 2b shows what happens to the path of
light after time has gone by when θ1= θ + d θ meaning the angle in our case would be 2θ1=2(θ
 Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022

+ dθ). We then define D to be the distance between the foxed and rotating mirror and S1 as the
point where the pulse hits on the foxed mirror. We then can calculate S1 and S using Equations 1.

For the next step in the derivation, it is once again important to consider what the laser is
doing, some simple lens optics and how all of this effects the displacement of S’. This is easier to
visualize if you remove the rotating mirror and the beamsplitter from the equation, like what is
shown in figure 3 below.

Now looking at just the virtual images of the beam path we can see that is has the same
geometry as the reflected images. Lens theory tells us that an object of height dS in the focal
plane L2 will be focused in the plane of point S with a height of (-i/o)dS. i and o being the
distances of the lens from the image and the object. However, the negative sign can be ignored
since an inverted image doesn’t matter in this case. We can then rewrite the expression for the
displacement of S’ as Equation 2.

Now we can combine our two equations due to the relationship between the displacement of S
and the initial and secondary positions of the rotating mirror. This gives us equations 3.
 Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022

The angle dθ depends on two things; the rotational velocity of the mirror and on the time it takes
for a single light pulse to travel back and forth between the two mirrors or a distance of 2D. This
relationship is shown in equation 4. Where c represents the speed of light and ω represents the
rotational velocity in radians per second

We can then use substitute Equation 4 into eqution 3 to give us euquation 5.

Now we can finally rearrange and solve for the final equation. Where C is the speed of late, ω is
the rotational velocity of the rotating mirror, A is the distance between L2 and L1 minus the focal
length of L1, B is the distance between L2 and the rotating mirror, D is the distance between the
rotating mirror and the fixed mirror, and dS’ is the displacement of the image point as viewed on
the microscope.

However for our experiment we will be using adifferent version of the equations shown below
as equation 7.

(EQ7)

Experiment

The three main pieces of equiment needed to preform this experiment are a laser
alignment bench, a high speed roatating mirror assembly, a foxed mirror, a 0.5 mW He-Ne laser,
two lenses and a measuring mircoscope. Set up is one of the most important part of this
experiment as the tools being used are very precise and finicky. To start the procedure start by
setting up everything on the laser alignment bench. Place the laser and roataing mirror on
opposute sides so that the center of the rotating mirror is hit by the laser. Align the mirror such
 Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022

that the beam relflects back towrds the lazer. Now place L1, which has a focal length of 48mm so
that it is aligned with the 93cm mark on the optics bench. Place L2, which has a focal length of
252mm so that is is aligned at the 62.2 cm mark. Now set the fixed mirror 2-15 meters for the
rotating mirror, the angle formed connecting the two should be about 12 degrees. To check and
make sure the beam is alligned correctly set the rotational mirror so aht the beam is directed
towards the fixed mirror then adjust the position until the beam hits the center. This can be easily
checked with a piece of paper or stickynote. Place the polarizers between the laser and L1and
keep it like that until the rotational mirror comes up to speed. One can now bring the cross-hairs
of the microscope intoi focus by adjusting the eyepiece until the image becomes as sharp as
possible.
To actually begin the experiment start by turning on the motor to 750 in the
clockwise direction. Then measure the corresponding deflection of the image point by adjusting
the mircometer knob on the microspcope until it is in the center of the crosshairs. After allowing
the motor to come to a complete rest allow the motor on the mirror to come to a complete stop
before switching it to 750 in the counter clockwise direction and measure the resulting
deflection. Repeat this entire process again at a motot speed of 1500.

Data

Below is table one which shows our measured data on each of the trials before
error is propogated. Note that everything is in Meters except the rotainal velocity which was converted
into radians.

Table 1
 Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022

Data Analysis

On an overall note the alignment of all the components is very snesitive. Its because of
this imperfect allignment that there is a systematic error for each measurement took. Along with
all that further small changes that range from slight moving of the lenses to get a sharper image
to people accidentally bumping the table of the weeekend. To find the overall error of the seytem
we will need to use the equation

This gives is 1.733*10^6 M/S, so our final measurement for c is 2.98*10^8 ±1.733*10^6
M/S at 750 revolutions or 3.27*10^8±1.733*10^6 M/S at 1500 revolutions

Conclusion

In this lab we used the Foucault method to accurately recoed the speed of light. We
succesfully did so, although it was more accurate for our reading at 750 revolutions. After errror
propogation our final results were c= .98*10^8 ±1.733*10^6 M/S at 750 revolutions or
3.27*10^8±1.733*10^6 M/S at 1500 revolutions
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022
Joseph Piriano
PHYS 506
4/29/2022