Technical Report Writing

Unit one: Meaning and Characteristics of Technical Report

1.1 Meaning of Reports

A report is a document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience
and purpose. Although summaries of reports may be delivered orally, complete reports are
almost always in the form of written documents.

Kuiper and Clippinger define reports as "organized, objective presentation of observations,

experiences, or facts used in the decision-making process" (Contemporary Business Reports,
2013).

Sharma and Mohan define a technical report as "a written statement of the facts of a situation,
project, process or test; how these facts were ascertained; their significance; the conclusions that
have been drawn from them; and [in some cases] the recommendations that are being made"
(Business Correspondence and Report Writing, 2002).

Report Writing is a well-organized writing process that needs enough skill, research, and details.
This report writing process is usually time-consuming and often requires a detailed research for
which the report writer may have to visit places, meet people and find a solid conclusion at the
end of the day to write a good report.

Use of report writing is to explain a matter or issue and inform higher authorities to help them
take a right decision or action in regards to the matter or issue.

There is a little room for creativity in the report writing structure as the main focus is to enlighten
the readers about a matter or issue and make the whole thing self-explanatory for easy
understanding.

Report Writing is the primary tool of media personnel through which they pass on specific
information about an incident or topic.

Apart from the media usage, report writing is required in various sectors like corporate,
government, politics etc.

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Technical Report Writing
To offer a better understanding, learning about the essence of this form of writing – ‘Report’ is
very important.

Generally, a report is a methodical, well planned document which outlines and evaluates a
subject or problem, and which may include:

• The record of an order of events

• Explanation of the implication of these events or facts
• Evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
• Discussion of the consequences of a conclusion or course of action
• Conclusions
• References
1.2 General Characteristics of Good Report Writing

Simplicity:

The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is easily understandable. Jargons and
technical words should be avoided.

Brevity:

A report should be concise. It shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the reader is
not lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be complete.

Clarity:
It is essential that the technical writer understands the reader's background and needs. Making
the documentation too technical can confuse the reader. The document is meaningless if the
intended audience does not understand what the writer wants to communicate. Writers who are
well aware of their audiences are in a position to give a solution to their problems. The
profession of technical writing demands simplicity of language and clarity of expression. One
must avoid unnecessary words that may put the readers in a quandary. The written document
must be clear and concise so that the text becomes easier to grasp and understand.

Punctuation:

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Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of sentences may be
misunderstood or misrepresented.

Readability:

The keynote of a report is readability. The style of presentation and the diction (use of words)
shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is compelled to read the report from the
beginning to the end.’ Then only a report serves its purpose. A report on the same subject matter
can be written differently for different classes of readers.

Accuracy:
Accuracy is an important characteristic of any technical document. A slight mistake can have
grave consequences. For instance, if you forget to mention some important features of a new
mobile phone, the customers may think that there is nothing special in that phone and will not
prefer to buy it. Effective communication requires quality content and language that is accurate
and readable. Technical writing does not mean that you translate information unquestioningly. In
this profession, one must know for whom the document is being written and whether it is
accurate.
Correctness:
The grammatical structure of your technical document should be correct and free from any kind
of ambiguities. The intended meaning will not be communicated to the reader if the document
has ambiguous sentences. A well-organized document that makes use of headings and sub-
headings is not only pleasing to the eye but will also help the reader to find specific information
in a short time.

Logical Sequence:

The points in a report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by step and not in a
haphazard manner. A planning is necessary before a report is prepared.

Presentation:

A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing or printing as well
as quality of paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colorful Annual Reports.

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Generally, technical writing, just as any other form of writing, has certain characteristics which
distinguish it from other types of writing. One of the main characteristics of technical writing is
the fact that it clear and straight forward. If you are interested in technical writing for
professional purposes, it is very important to know that this type of writing require that the writer
stick to the subject matter and relay information in a clear and concise manner.

It is very different from writing opinion pieces, essays, prose, non-fiction or fiction. The
language used should be very direct and straight to the point. You should avoid using words that
people do not understand, and you should also avoid an eloquent writing style.

Another characteristic of technical writing is that it is very detailed and informative. The perfect
example of technical writing is a textbook. The written content of most textbooks is geared to
providing information by describing the subject matter as fully as possible.

Technical writing is also very structured. This type of writing has a very obvious composition
that makes it easy for the reader to follow along. Solid structure is needed with technical writing
as it allows the audience to easily access the information as needed.

1.3 Determining Purpose and Audience

1.3.1 Purpose

Technical reports are designed to quickly alert researchers to recent findings in scientific and
technical research. These reports are issued for a variety of purposes: to communicate results or
describe progress of a research project; as background information on an emerging or critical
research topic; to provide a list of instructions or procedures for current practices; to determine
the feasibility of a technology and recommend if the research should be continued (and how to
evaluate progress that is made); and finally, to detail technical specifications (materials,
functions, features, operation, market potential, etc.).

In general, you need to develop rhetorical Problem Statements. You, as technical writer, have an
important job in defining the rhetorical purpose of your report, and each of its parts.

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o Ask yourself first, Why Write This Report? The reasons will usually fall into the
following general categories:
 To Persuade or Cause Change
 To Inform or Report Results
 To Support a Decision to be reached
 To Obtain Funding or Support for Future Work or Research

From these, select the one that best describes the most important reason you are writing. That
will be the basis of your rhetorical problem statement which should appear early in your report
and in any cover document you use to transmit it. Remember that your reader wants to know
first, Why Should I take My Valuable Time to Read this Report? Unless you give him/her an
acceptable answer, your report will not be read, period.

1.3.2 The Target Audience

Are your audience professionals or public: Specialists in the field, non-specialists but related
fields or common people? Analyzing your audience helps you decide the language you should
use and write your report based on the various reader backgrounds level of understanding your
language.

As a student, you might assume that your technical report's audience is your instructor; however,
this may not always be the case. Your instructor may ask you to produce a report for your peers
or for other engineers. However, you shouldn't always assume that your audience has a strong
engineering background or is familiar with the engineering terminology you use. Always check
with your instructor to know who your audience is.

As an engineer in the field, the most likely audience for the technical reports you produce is
other engineers with a background similar to yours. This audience is more likely to understand
the terminology you use. However, you should always evaluate who your readers will be before
assuming they will understand your jargon. Consider how your readers will use your report. For
instance, you might submit a technical report to a publication or your technical report may
present a specific design. The audiences in each situation have different needs. Audiences may

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read the publication for information and insight while audiences reading about your specific
design may critique your design or make decisions based on its content.

1.4 Importance of Reports

What are the main Advantages of Report Writing?

1. Report gives consolidated and updated information

A report provides consolidated, factual and up-to-date information about a particular

matter of subject. Information in the report is well organized and can be used for future
planning and decision making.

2. Report as a means of internal communication

A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. It provides

feedback to employees. It is prepared for the information and guidance of others
connected with the matter/problem.

3. Report facilitates decision making and planning

Report provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making
process. It acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and
decision making.

4. Report discloses unknown information

Reports provide information which may not be known previously. The committee
members collect data, draw conclusions and provide information which will be new to all
concerned parties. Even new business opportunities are visible through unknown
information available in the reports.

5. Report gives information to employees

Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used
by the departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful
for their self-improvement.

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6. Report gives reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available

to the office. We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even
today for different purpose.

7. Report facilitates framing of personnel policies

Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such
as promotion policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.

8. Report gives information to shareholders

Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of shareholders. Annual
report for example, is prepared and sent to all shareholders before the general assembly
called.

9. Report gives information to the Registrar

Annual report and annual accounts are sent to the registrar every year for information.
Such reports enable the government to keep supervision on the companies to help them in
many ways.

10. Report solves current problems

Reports are useful to managers while dealing with current problems faced by the
company. They provide guidance while dealing with complicated problems.

11. Report helps directors to take prompt decisions

Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are extremely useful to
directors in decision making and policy framing. Reports are reliable and useful
information in a compact form.

1.5 Types of Report

Types of reports:

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Technical Report Writing
Report can be classified into different types based on different criteria .These are:

1. Based on the formality:-

A. INFORMAL REPORT:-

This is usually in the form of a person to person communication. It does not follow any format
and informally conveys the required information. They are short reports. This can be letters,
memos or extremely brief report forms. These usually focus on a single subject and targeted to a
single receiver or small audience. They contain some of the elements of report.

B. FORMAL REPORT:-

This is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented in the proper way to the prescribed
authority. They can be a statutory. They are long reports. These reports contain all or most of the
elements that a certain report is expected to contain and cover more complicated topics and they
are addressed to large and overlapping audiences. These reports differ from informal reports by
their length, components. They include the scope of the subject matter and size of the audience.

2. Based on the frequency of issue:-

A. PERIODIC or ROUTINE REPORTS:-

These are presented at routine intervals in the normal course of business. The time period could
be annually, semi-annually, monthly, fat nightly, weekly, or even daily.

Generally, these reports are mere statement of facts. They do not go with a recommendation or
opinion. For e.g. Progress report, monthly sales report, etc…

B. SPECIAL (NON-PERIODIC) REPORTS:-

They are related and generated for a single occasion or situation. They deal with non-recurrent
issues. An individual or a committee is appointed to investigate the situation and present its
findings.

They give suggestions to the management to take decisions. For e.g. project report, feasibility
study report, First information report [F.I.R] etc…

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3. On the basis of FUNCTION

A. INFORMATIVE REPORT:-

This presents facts and information related to an issue or situation. It gives the reader
information. Its purpose is to inform, to persuade or to justify an opinion. It tells the reader about
the products, services, or operations of an organization. It is usually done by technicians,
Engineers and business people to give information to the people both inside and outside
organization.

-It is written in a direct, concise and polite form.

-It can take different forms such as memo, letter or short report form. If the information is for the
people inside the organization, a memo format is used. If the information is for the people
outside the organization, a letter or a short report format is used.

-conference report and a report presenting sales figures for a quarter. are kinds of informational
reports.

B. INTERPRETIVE or ANALYTIC REPORT:-

This presents facts, analyses and suggests recommendations to be taken. Hence, it defines the
problem, presents data, analyses data, draws conclusion based on the analysis and makes
recommendation based on the conclusion.

-it is used for special projects that request extensive research, investigation and analysis.

-It can take weeks, month, and even years to be completed as is quit extensive in its nature.

-because of its extensive nature, several people can be involved in its preparation.

- Usually, they have more complex design than information.

FIELD TRIP REPORT: after referring from an assignment in the field, a worker or workers may
be asked to complete/write a field report describing that was seen or accomplished. Field reports
present the analyses of the location of the trip, site or situation to record and determine an
appropriate action.

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Technical Report Writing
-Its organization includes background data, account of the field inception, analysis of findings,
conclusion and recommendations

-A factual report is required in writing a field trip report.

-If the field trip takes more than one day daily note should be made.

-they are written in narrative forms.

PROGRESS REPORTS: to keep manager aware of what is going on, workers involved in long
and short term projects may be required to write periodic report about how their work is going
on.

-progress reports are especially important if problems are affecting the completion schedule of
the project. The management needs to know the reason for the delay, how casts will be affected,
obstacles that cannot be overcome, and so soon.

-progress reports provide a record of the project status over a specific period of time. They give
information about what has been done, what is being done and what remains to be done. They
also review the expenditure of time, money and materials. Hence, decisions can be made to
adjust schedules, allocate budget or schedule supplies and equipments.

They include:

 Name of the work or project,

 Total work to be completed,
 Date,
 Work completed to date,
 Possible date for completion,
 Remarks, if any and
 An assessment of the whole progress and
 Signature and designation of the reporting officer.

INCIDENT OR SITUATION REPORT: explains something that happened somewhere and at

sometime. For example an accident on the job, a problem with malfunctioning of equipments,

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loss or theft of items and so on. These are reports of occurrences such as accidents, machine
breakdowns, delivery delays, cost overtones, production slowdowns, and personnel problems.
They are written investigations of accidents. They include:

 What happened?
 What caused it to happen?
 What were the consequences? And
 What can be done to avoid recurrences?

FEASIBILITY REPORT: these are written reports to evaluate or determine the practicability of
future works, programs, land development and environmental impact, expansion of new
equipments or service. These are developed to look into a new project to determine the
practicability of the project.

The organization of such reports includes:

 Explanation of the problem,

 Preset standards or criteria,
 Description of the item/s/ or subject/s/ to be analyzed,
 An explanation of the scope of the presentation of data,
 Interpretation of data and
 Conclusion and recommendation.

LABORATORY REPORT: these reports are the written results of a laboratory work or a testing
experimentation. They include:

 Heading
 Experiment No.
 Date,
 Review of methods or procedures of testing
 Results,
 Conclusions and recommendations and
 Signature

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Technical Report Writing
INSPECTION REPORTS: the report which incorporates the result of the inspection of a piece of
equipments to ascertain whether it is functioning properly or requires any repairs or replacement
or these report indicates the result of inspection of a product as part of quality control.

ANNUAL CONFIDENTIAL REPORTS ON EMPLOYEES: it is a periodic evaluation of the

performance and the general conduct of organization employees. The assessments thus made are
used at appropriate times for rewards such as increments, promotion, transfer to more
responsible jobs, etc. An example of such a report form is given below:

Name of the employee:

Status:

Date of appointment:

Scales: excellent good average below average

a. appearance:
b. character:
c. motivation:
d. relationship:
e. output:
f. expression:
g. special achievements:
h. other remarks:

Date: Signature and designation of the reporting

officer:

Place:

4. On the basis of NATURE OF THE SUBJECT

This is based on the department from which the report originates. For example: engineering
reports, financial reports, advertizing reports, insurance reports, marketing reports, personnel
reports, production reports, statistical reports, technical reports and so on.

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5. On the basis of ORIGIN:

This is weather authorized or voluntary and also weather private or public.

AUTHORIZED REPORT: is requested or authorized by another body; VOLENTARY REPORT

is written on one’s own initiatives.

PRIVATE REPORT originates in a private business firm; PUBLIC REPORT originates in a

government schools or other publicly financed offices.

Unit Two: Basic Structure of a Report

We discussed earlier that there are different types of report such as laboratory reports. Always
check with the person commissioning the report (your tutor, your placement supervisor) to find
out precisely what your report should include and how it should be presented. Technical Reports
have an organized format because a majority of your audience may not read the entire report in
one reading. This specific format allows readers to quickly locate the information they need. The
following common elements can be found in many different reports:

Section Content Advice

Title page The title page should include the title of Make sure this is clear and
the report, the writers name, date, etc indicates exactly what you
want and have to report
Acknowledgements List of people who helped you research or Do not include those that
prepare the report, including your doesn’t have direct
proofreaders relationship with the work
Table of Contents Numbers and lists all section and Do not include minor sub
subsection headings with page numbers. section and cite correct pages
Abstract The whole project in miniature. Do not include, references to
♦ State main objectives – What did you figures, etc., information in
investigate and why? the report, background
♦ Describe methods – What did you do? information.
♦ Summarize important results – What did Extract key points and
you find out? condense material
♦ State main conclusions – what do your
results mean?

Introduction ♦ Describe the problem investigated. Move from general to

♦ Summarize relevant research to provide specific – relate problems in
context, key terms, and concept so the the real world to your

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Technical Report Writing
reader can understand the experiment.
♦ Review relevant past research to
Provide rational for your work.
♦ Briefly describe your research – design,
research, hypothesis, etc.
Methodology ♦ How you studied the problem and what
you used – materials, subjects and
equipment.
♦ How you performed the research –
methods and procedure.
Conclusions Outline the success of your project when
compared to the objectives that were set.
♦ Suggest further work for your research
area.
♦ Summarize the most important findings.
This includes suggestions for what needs Order recommendations in
Recommendations to be done as a result of your findings.
Details of published sources of material
referred to or quoted in the text (including citation for different sources
any lecture notes and URL addresses of
References any websites used./ Other published
sources of material, including websites,
not referred to in the text but useful for
background or further reading.
Appendices (if These should add extra but relevant
applicable) information to the report.
Generally, basic structure of a report can be classified in to three. These are
3.1. The Front Matter
14
research. Make clear links
between the problem and the
solution. Be selective in
choosing studies to cite.
Provide enough detail for
replication of your work.
Order procedures
chronologically.
Use past tense to describe
what you did. Don’t mix
results with procedure.
Make explanations complete.
Avoid speculation that
cannot be tested in the
foreseeable future.
Discuss possible reasons for
expected or unexpected
findings.
priority with the major
concern of the report or
objectives.
Follow correct reference
and cite those resources you
used only.
If you include appendices
they must be referred to in
the body of the report and
must have a clear purpose for
being included. Each
appendix must be named and
numbered.
Technical Report Writing
3.2. The body Matter

3.3 The Back Matter

Each sub contents under each category will be analyzed here under.

2.1. The Front Matter

2.1.1 Title Page

A technical report should always include a title clearly identifying the report. A title should be
descriptive and accurate, but not wordy, verbose or too terse.

This page gives:

 the title of the report

 the authors' names and ID numbers
 the course name and number, the department, and university
 the date of submission.

2.1.2 Acknowledgement

Generally, those persons who have professionally contributed to the work be it in kind or in ideas
must be acknowledged. Next, you also need to acknowledge the institutions that have provided
funding, research space, manpower, etc towards your research project. Finally, you may want to
mention those individuals who have provided personal support and assistance that is separate
from professional help. Avoid using the publication from making political or religious
declarations. Your scientific report is the result of a scientific endeavor; it is best to keep it that
way.

2.1.3 Abstract

The Abstract is extremely important because it helps readers decide what to read and what to
pass over. The idea of the abstract is to give readers an honest evaluation of the report's content,
so they can quickly judge whether they should spend their valuable time reading the entire
report. This section should give a true, brief description of the report's content. The most

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Technical Report Writing
important purpose of the abstract is to allow somebody to get a quick picture of the report's
content and make a judgment.

Since an Abstract is a brief summary of your report, its length corresponds with the report's
length. So, for example, if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn't use more than 150
words in the abstract. Generally, abstracts define the report's purpose and content.

Abstract provides a brief overview of the substance of the report, usually no more than half a
page. It is not an introduction to the topic; it should contain all the key features of your report,
including the topic, what you did and how you did it, and the main outcomes of your work. A
busy manager who might not have time to read the full report should be able to get the gist of the
whole report by reading it.

This brief report summary:

states the topic of the report

outlines your approach to the task if applicable
gives the most important findings of your research or investigation, or the key aspects of
your design
states the main outcomes or conclusions.

However, it does NOT:

provide general background information

explain why you are doing the research, investigation or design
refer to later diagrams or references.

2.1.4 Table of Contents

The contents page sets out the sections/headings and subsections/subheadings of the report and
their corresponding page numbers. It should clearly show the structural relationship between the
sections and subsections. A good Table of Contents distinguishes headings from subheadings
and aligns these with the appropriate page numbers. This also means you should pay attention to
capitalization, spacing, and indentation. A reader looking for specific information should be able

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Technical Report Writing
to locate the appropriate section easily from the table of contents. The conventions for section
and page numbering are as follows:

* Number the sections by the decimal point numbering system:

1. Title of first main section (usually Introduction)

1.1 First subheading

1.2 Second subheading

2 Title of second main section

2.1 First subheading

2.2 Second subheading

2.2.1 First division in the second subheading

2.2.2 Second division in the second subheading

3 Title of third main section

* Number all the preliminary pages (acknowledgement, abstract, table of contents, list of
figures, etc.) in lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, ...). Preliminary pages are any which
come before the introduction, including the abstract and, where applicable, acknowledgements.

* Number all the remaining pages of your report with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4 ...). Thus the
report proper begins on page 1 with your introduction, which is usually Section 1.

* Provide a title in your table of contents to describe the contents of each appendix (Note: one
appendix, two or more appendices). Don't just call them Appendix 1 or Appendix 2.

2.1.5 List of Figures and List of Tables

These two separate lists assist readers in locating your photos, drawings, tables, graphs and
charts. Like the Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in an organized, appealing
format. Typically, you can shorten a figure or table's title when you create these lists.

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2.2. The body Matter

2.2.1 Introduction

The introduction provides the background information needed for the rest of your report to be
understood. It is usually half to three-quarters of a page in length, but its length usually varies
according to the length of the report itself. The purpose of the introduction is to set the context
for your report, provide sufficient background information for the reader to be able to follow the
information presented, and inform the reader about how that information will be presented.

The introduction includes:

the background to the topic of your report to set your work in its broad context
a clear statement of the purpose of the report, usually to present the results of your
research, investigation, or design
a clear statement of the aims of the project
technical background necessary to understand the report; e.g. theory or assumptions
a brief outline of the structure of the report if appropriate (this would not be necessary in
a short report)

2.2.2. Report Body

In a technical report, the body typically presents an introduction, various other sections,
depending on your topic, and a Conclusion. Throughout the body, you should include text (both
your own and research from other sources), graphics, and lists. Whenever you cite information or
use graphics from another source, you must credit these sources within your text by using
appropriate reference style- MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American
Psychological Association), Chicago Manual Style, etc.

Body of the report is main part of the report, where you present your work. The introduction and
conclusions act as a frame for the body only: therefore all the details of your work must be
included here in the appropriate section. You will need to put some thought into the ordering of
the sections; the presentation of information should flow logically so that the reader can follow
the development of your project. It is also essential that you choose concise but informative

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Technical Report Writing
headings and subheadings so that the reader knows exactly what type of information to expect in
each section.

The body of the report:

 presents the information from your research, both real world and theoretical, or your
design
 organizes information logically under appropriate headings
 conveys information in the most effective way for communication:
uses figures and tables
can use bulleted or numbered lists
can use formatting to break up large slabs of text

2.2.3. Conclusions

The conclusion section provides an effective ending to your report. The content should relate
directly to the aims of the project as stated in the introduction, and sum up the essential features
of your work. This section:

states whether you have achieved your aims

gives a brief summary of the key findings or information in your report
Highlights the major outcomes of your investigation and their significance.

2.3 The Back Matter

2.3.1 Referencing

Whenever you cite information (this includes graphics) from another source, you must credit the
source in your References. Always check with your instructor to determine which reference style
to use.

Proper documentation involves referencing all of your sources clearly. Different professional
organizations and corporations have developed their own formats for referencing sources,
although most formats include the same information. As a result, you will see a number of
different referencing styles in use professionally.

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Technical Report Writing
The two parts to referencing are:

1. citations in the text of the report

2. a list of references in the final section

A citation shows that information comes from another source. The reference list gives the details
of these sources. You need to use in-text citations and provide details in the references section
when:

* you incorporate information from other sources; e.g.:

factual material
graphs and tables of data
pictures and diagrams

* you quote word-for-word from another work (when you do this the page number must be
given in the in-text citation)

In Engineering, the most common referencing style is the author-date (Harvard) system.
However, in Electrical Engineering the IEEE system is used. Example of in-text citation and
reference list entry using the Harvard referencing style:

In-text citation

Corrosion is defined as a “chemical action which harms the properties of a metal' (Glendenning
1973, p.12). Because corrosion reduces the life of the material and protection procedures are
expensive, special corrosion-resistant metals have been developed, including Monel metals
which are particularly suited to marine applications (Glendenning 1973).

Technical writers use signal phrases (reporting verbs) to smoothly integrate the information they
have taken into the running text. These signal phrases introduce the material being used, include
author’s name, allow writers to keep the parenthesis citation brief and indicate sources the
material taken from.

Reference list entry:

Reference entries are alphabetically arranged (A, B, C …).

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First letters of key words are capitalized.
Second, third, etc. lines in each entry are indented
There is no double space between entries

Referencing Books

Name of author/s or editor/s using last name, plus initial/s. (Type Ed. or Eds. - short for editor/s
here if referring to a whole edited book). (Year of publication). Title of Book (Edition number
goes here if later than first e.g. 2nd ed.). Place of publication: Publisher.

Haynes, J. (2005). Comparative politics in a globalizing world. Cambridge: Polity.

Glendenning, E.H. (1973). English in Mechanical Engineering. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Referencing Electronic Books

Gordon, P. H., & Shapiro, J. (2004). Allies at war: America, Europe and the crisis over Iraq
[Electronic version]. New York: McGraw-Hill.

This format is identical to that of a printed book apart from adding “Electronic version” in
square brackets immediately after the book title.

Chapters in edited books

Evans, T. (1997). Democratization and human rights. In A. McGrew (Ed.), The transformation of
democracy? (pp. 122-148). Cambridge: Polity Press.

Name of author. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In Name of editor/s (Ed/s.), Title of book
(pp. Start and end page numbers of chapter). Place of publication: Publisher.
Journal articles
Foster, C. D. (2001). The civil service under stress: the fall in civil service power and authority.
Public Administration, 79(3), 725-749.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume number (issue
number), Start and end page numbers of article.

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Technical Report Writing
Magazine articles
Hobsbawm, E. (1998, November/December). The death of neo-liberalism. Marxism Today, 4-8.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication – month/s or month plus day if
weekly). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Page number/s of article.

Newspaper articles
Cowan, R. (2001, October 23). Adams asks IRA to disarm. The Guardian, p. 1.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication – month plus day). Title of article.
Title of Newspaper, Page number/s of article.

Official publications
Prime Minister’s Office & Cabinet Office. (1999). Modernising Government (Cm 4310).
London: The Stationery Office.
Select Committee on Defence. (1996). Fourth Report, Westland plc: The Government’s
Decision-Making (HC 519). London: HMSO.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of Official Publication (Official publication’s

reference number). Place of publication: Publisher.

Conference papers
Newman, J. (2001, September). New Labour and the Politics of Governance. Paper presented at
the Annual Conference of the European Group of Public Administration, Vaasa, Finland.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Month of conference). Title of Conference Paper. Paper
presented at the Title of Conference or the Name of the Organisation holding the conference,
Location of conference.

Website material
Commission of the European Communities. (2001). Governance in the European Union: a

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Technical Report Writing
White Paper. Retrieved August 21, 2001, from http://europa.eu.int/governance/white_paper/
index_en.htm
Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of web page. Retrieved date accessed, from World
Wide Web address.

Electronic journal articles which are duplicates of the printed version

Mabbett, D. (2005). The development of rights-based social policy in the European Union: the
example of disability rights [Electronic version]. Journal of Common Market Studies,
43(1), 97-120.
This format is identical to that of a printed journal article apart from adding “Electronic
version” in square brackets immediately after the article title.

Articles retrieved from a full-text database e.g. JSTOR, LexisNexis,

Business Source Premier
Hughes, K., & Smith, E. (1998). New Labour – new Europe? International Affairs, 74(1), 93-
104. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the JSTOR database.
White, M., & Seager, A. (2005, September 5). Blair hopes to unravel textile row at EU-China
summit. The Guardian, p. 2. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the LexisNexis
Executive database.
Article reference format follows that of a normal journal, newspaper or magazine article. You
should then add: Retrieved month day, year, from name of full-text database.
Films
Reed, C. (Director). (1949). The Third Man [Motion picture]. United Kingdom: British
Lion/London Films.
Name of primary contributor - the director or producer, or both, Initials. (Role of primary
contributor). (Year). Title of film [Motion picture]. Country of origin – where the film was
primarily made and released: Name of studio.

Television/Radio programs
Jewhurst, A. (Producer). (2005, September 15). Dispatches: secrets of the shoplifters [Television
broadcast]. London: Channel 4.

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Technical Report Writing
Scott-Brown, A. (Producer). (2005, September 15). Bulawayo boys [Radio broadcast]. London:
BBC Radio 4.
Name of primary contributor – the producer or director. (Role of primary contributor). (Year,
month & day of broadcast). Title of program [Type of broadcast]. Place: Name of broadcaster.

Single episode from a television series

Di Mambro, A. M. (Writer), & Walker, P. N. (Director). (2005). Holding on [Television series
episode]. In S. Howells (Producer), Casualty. London: BBC1.

Note that this example is similar to a chapter in an edited book with the producer being placed in
the position used for editor. If details of the writer are unavailable, begin your reference with the
name of the director.

Sample Bibliography Writing

Beer, D.F. (Ed.) Writing and Speaking in the Technology Professions - A Practical Guide,
IEEE Press, 1992.
Byrne, N. (1998) Citing and Referencing - A Guide for Students. Dublin City University
Library.
Gratzer, G. Math into TeX : : A Simple Introduction to AMS-LaTeX, Birkhauser, 1993.
Hirschorn, R.M. and Miller, G. (1999) Control of Nonlinear Systems with Sriction. IEEE
Trans. on Control System Technology, Vol.7, No.5, Sept.
Kreyszig, E. Advanced Engineering Mathematics (7th Ed.),, Wiley, 1993.
Lamport, L. LaTeX : A Document Preparation System : User's Guide and Reference Manual
(2nd Ed.), Addison-Wesley, 1994.
Murray, F. (1997) Time Series Forecasting Methodologies for Electricity Supply Systems, PhD
Thesis, Dublin City University.
O'Connor, M. Computer-Based Control of Time Delay Systems Using a Smith Predictor, BEng
Project Report, School of Electronic Engineering, Dublin City University, 1989.
Ringwood, J. and Galvin, G. Artificial Neural Networks - An Introduction, Available from:
http://www.eeng.dcu.ie/~annet/ [Accessed 15th Nov. 1999].

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Technical Report Writing
Whitfield, A. and Wallace, F.J. Study of Incidence Loss Models in Radial and Mixed-Flow
turbo-machinery, Proc. Cong. Heat Fluid Flow in Steam and Gas Turbine Plant, Univ.
Warwick, Coventry, UK, April 1973, pp 122-32.

2.3.2 Appendices

An appendix is added or appended material that may be relevant to your report but which cannot
be placed comfortably in the body of the report. Use it for supplementary material which, if
included in the body of the text, would interrupt the flow. For example, a lengthy derivation of
an equation (unless the derivation is the subject of your report), a complete computer program, or
a laboratory log of an experiment would be included in the appendix. A bulky folded map or
drawing should also be put in an appendix, as should corporate or commercial material, such as
product specifications or promotional documents.

2.4. Technical Writing Conventions

Convention refers to the common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines or
characteristics for products or related processes and production methods and related management
system practices in report writing. Convention must be followed when writing prose
(conventions of English usage, for example), conventions for diagrams exist and should also be
followed. The hands of a clock move - usually - in a clockwise direction, and it is surprising if
for some reason they do not. Readers will accept what they are used to, and shock tactics rarely
have a place in report writing.

The format chosen for a diagram should be appropriate to the information which it presents, for
instance, a great many detailed figures should be given in tabular form. Comparisons of aspects
of one item or of two different items are best seen in bar chart form, while for both general trends
and accurate scientific results, graphs are used.

Diagrams may be produced and therefore bound into the report in one of two ways, either as an
upright A4 sheet (‘portrait’ position) or turned through an angle of 90° for greater width
(‘landscape’ position). The landscape format is useful and easily accepted by the eye, provided
that the page is turned clockwise through 90°. Having to turn a book first one way and then the
other to see the diagrams is irritating out of all proportion to the effort involved.

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2.5. Technical Writing Layout

Clear layout and presentation will make your report more accessible to your readers. Some key
considerations in layout include headings, illustrations, and other strategies that could be
classified, broadly, as the “mechanics” of report writing. These latter are not solely layout
concerns, but are included in this portion of form & style for the sake of convenience.

2.5.1. Headings

Headings are the writer's direction signals to the reader. They form a major contribution to your
report’s readability. All headings should be followed by text, before the next subheading.

Headings should not be part of the text; the text should be able to stand alone. As a result, you
should never refer back to the heading from the text, but rather write the text so that its meaning
does not depend on the heading. Add headings to make the text more accessible.

Headings:

 Headings are the writer’s direction signals to the reader.

 Help readers to follow a text with ease and understanding.
 Reflect accurately the material that appears beneath them.aid immeasurably in making a
document easy to read and understand.
 Are numbered; form & Style requires the use of a decimal numbering system to number
your headings.

First level (chapter): 1, 2, 3, etc.

Second level: 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc.

Third level: 2.1.1, 2.1.2, 2.1.3, etc.

Fourth level: 2.1.1.1, 2.1.1.2, etc.

2.5.2 Mechanics

The mechanics of document layout include a range of considerations that contribute to the
accessibility and readability of your report. These include pagination conventions, text spacing

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conventions, quotation marks and other punctuation conventions, guidelines for incorporating
equations into your text, capitalization conventions, “widow” and “orphan” problems, typeface
and style considerations, and finally, binding guidelines.

2.5.2.1. Pagination

Pagination of the report can be divided into that for the main body and end matter, and that for
the front matter.

2.5.2.1.1. Main Body Pagination. The pages of the body of the report are numbered 1, 2, 3, etc.,
starting with the first page of the introduction and including all subsequent pages, through the
appendices to the topic approval. The number of the all pages of the body is centered at the
bottom of the page; however, all page numbers may also be placed at the upper or lower right
corner of the pages.

2.5.2.1.2. Front Matter Pagination. For the front matter, a different numbering is used. The
front-matter pages but the title page are all numbered with small roman numerals: iii, iv, v, vi,
etc. All front matter pagination is centered at the bottom of the page. The sections in these pages
receive a small Roman numerals centered at the bottom of the page.

2.5.3. Spacing

The text of the report may be single- or double-spaced, printed on one side of the page only.
Entries on the Reference page should be single-spaced, but each entry should have a double
space before the next entry. See the sample Reference page.

In the text itself, you should leave one space after commas and other forms of internal
punctuation (e.g., colons, semi-colons); leave two spaces after periods and other forms of end
punctuation (e.g., question marks).

2.5.4. Quotation Marks and Other Punctuation

You should use quotation marks whenever you quote directly from a source. Punctuation should
be placed inside quotation marks; reference numbers, however, should be placed outside of
quotation marks.

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2.5.5. Equations in the Text

If you are including equations in your text, you should treat them as part of the sentence which
leads into the equation. That is, you should incorporate equations smoothly into your sentence
structure.

2.5.6. Capitalization of Words

As a general rule, you should capitalize only proper names of individuals and organizations.
Words such as “kilograms” and “civil engineering” do not require capitals (although “department
of Civil Engineering” does, as it refers to a specific organization). All first letters content words
in the Table of Contents and every first letter after a period should be capitalized,

2.5.7. “Widows” and “Orphans”

The terms “widow” and “orphan” refer to typographic anomalies that can occur when you are
preparing a final document for presentation.

An “orphan” is a word or short section of a line isolated at the bottom of a paragraph or a page.
Occasionally reports will have orphan headings - that is, headings which are at the bottom of the
page, with the text that follows them on the next page.

A “widow” is a word or sentence isolated at the top of a page (especially an otherwise blank
page).

You should try to avoid these, as they disrupt your layout, are unattractive, and can be confusing.

2.5.8 Type face and Size

Use a standard typeface such as Geneva, New York, Palatino, Times New Roman, Calibri, etc.
Avoid using fancy scripts, and use italic or bold type sparingly, for emphasis.

You should use twelve-point type size. Ten-point is too small to read comfortably, and larger
sizes make it appear as if you are simply trying to fill up space.

2.5.9. Binding

Submit your report in use spiral binding or plastic-spine binding.

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2.5.10 Illustrations

2.5.10.1 Tables

These are the most common form of diagram in technical reports. Tables can give a great deal of
accurate information if they are effectively presented. Vertical and horizontal rulings can be
untidy and confusing: the use of space is a much more successful alternative.

Headings should be matched at the left hand side, for ease of reading and also of typing.
Horizontal space is obtained by grouping similar items, with a space after, at most, seven items.
For example, an annual financial breakdown could have the months grouped in quarters (January
to March, etc) and no horizontal lines would be necessary. It is, however, possible to give too
much space, so that the reader loses track across the paper. Colleagues are useful people on
whom to test the ease with which a table can be used!
It is, as always, the need of the reader which is all-important. The report writer might have data
available which are of far greater detail than the reader could possibly need. In this case, figures
should be rounded to the appropriate accuracy, and perhaps some might be omitted altogether.

2.5.10.2. Graphics

Graphic elements of the report include all illustrations, graphs, charts and tables. Each graphic
must be numbered and titled appropriately.

All illustrations, drawings, maps, graphs and charts are considered to be figures, and should be
included in the list of figures. Place the number and caption at the figure’s base.

However, for tables, the number and heading go above the table.

All tables and figures should be referred to in your text at the relevant point. The textual
reference should precede the graphic. If a particular graphic is mentioned more than once, then
the graphic should follow the first textual reference.

Figures and tables should be incorporated into the text. The only exceptions would be for
material best suited for the appendix.

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Ensure that all images - figures and tables - are clear and legible. Do not include poorly
photocopied images or images that have been downloaded from the World Wide Web in a low-
resolution format. Finally, ensure that you give each graphic a comfortable amount of space on
the page; graphics should not be crammed between text or squeezed into the margin.

All figures and tables should be referenced, unless they are your own original work.

Graphs are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information. All graphs must
be clearly labeled, and scales identified. If graphs are to be compared, the same scale must be
used for each; as before, the detail needed by the reader must be included, and not necessarily all
that is available to the writer.

2.5.10.3 Space

Sometimes diagrams outgrow their pages, and this is dangerous. Margins must be sufficient on
all sides to allow for clarity, and to carry as appropriate the page number, figure number and title,
and to allow for the binding of the document.

Unit Three: Process of Report Writing/Stages of Report Preparation

The technical writing process can be divided into SIX steps:

1. Selecting a topic
2. Determining purpose and audience

3. Collecting ideas/ information

4. Organize and outline information

5. Write the first draft

6. Revise and edit

3.1 Selecting a Topic/ Planning

3.2 Determining Purpose and Audience

3.3 Collecting information

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The next step is to collect information needed for accomplishing the stated purpose. Information
may be collected through primary research, where the technical communicator conducts research
first-hand, and secondary research, where work published by another person is used as an
information source. The technical communicator must acknowledge all sources used to produce
his or her work. To ensure that this is done, the technical communicator should distinguish
quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes.

3.3.1 Sources of Data

The sources of data can be classified into:-

A) Primary Sources
B) Secondary Sources

A) Primary Sources

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have
not been previously collected. Primary data are first- hand information collected through various
methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing, etc.

Primarily data are directly collected by the research from their original sources. In this case, the
researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs, he can collect
them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is
costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of researches, required data may not available
from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.

There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’. While a
method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument used for the method.
For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) Observation (b)
Interviewing (c) Mail Survey, (d) Experimentation, (e) Simulation, and (f) Projective Technique.

B) Secondary Sources

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose.
The secondary sources consists of readily available compendia and already compiled statistical

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statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies, e.g. census
reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished
records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by firms and
organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members,
minute of meetings, inventory records, etc.

Secondary sources have the following characteristics:

 They are ready made and readily available. They do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering.
 They consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over
collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources
are shaped by others.
 Secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using
them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

3.3.3 Choice of Methods of Data Collection

Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed research
project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the research plan. One or
more methods has/have to be chosen. The choice of a method/s depends upon the following
factors.

A) The nature of the study or the subject- matter: If it is a study of opinions/ preferences
of persons, interviewing or mailing may be appropriate depending on the educational
level of the respondents. On the other hand an impact study may call for experimentation;
and a study of behavioral pattern may require observation.
B) The unit of enquire: The unit of enquire may be an individual, household, institution or
community.
C) The size and spread of the sample: If the sample is small and the area covered is
compact interviewing may be preferable, but a large sample scattered over a wider area
may require mailing.

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D) Scale of the survey: A large scale may require mailing or interviewing through trained
investigators.
E) The educational level of respondents: For a simple survey among educated persons
concerned with the subject-matter of study, a mail survey may be appropriate. But for a
survey of less educated / illiterate persons like industrial workers, slum dwellers, rural
people, interviewing is the only suitable method.
F) The type and depth of information to be collected: for collection of general, simple,
factual and non-emotional data, interviewing or mailing is appropriate. For an in-depth
survey of personal experiences and sensitive issues, depth interview is essential. For
collection of data on behavior, culture, customs, life style etc., observation method is
required.
G) The availability of skilled and trained manpower: In this case, even for a large general
survey entailing many complicated questions, interviewing can be adopted.
H) The rate of accuracy and representative nature of the data required: Interviewing is
the most appropriate for collecting accurate data from a representative sample of
population. Interview can achieve a higher response rate.

A researcher can select one or more of the methods keeping in view the above factors. No
method is universal. Each method’s unique features should be compared with the needs and
conditions of the study and thus the choice of the methods should be decided.

1. Questionnaires

 is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions posed by the researcher
on a question form.

 A number of respondents are asked identical questions, in order to gain information that
can be analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made.

 The commonest type of questionnaire involves closed choice or fixed questions where the
respondent is required to answer by choosing an option from a number of given answers,
usually by ticking a box or circling an answer.

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 The open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to formulate and
record their answers in their own words.

 These are more qualitative and can produce detailed answers to complex problems.

 There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each type of method.

 Open ended questions give a greater insight and understanding of the topic researched but
may be difficult to classify and quantify and must be carefully interpreted.

 Fixed choice questions are easy to classify and quantify, require less time, effort and
ingenuity to answer but do not allow the respondents to qualify, develop or clarify their
answers.

 General tips for constructing questionnaires: Get the beginning right - this will
encourage respondents to read on.

 One should state what the survey is about and roughly how long it will take to complete.

 Make the questionnaire look attractive - use space well and avoid a cramped
appearance.

 Use a large enough type size and avoid block capitals so that questions can be easily
read.

 Keep sentences short and sentence construction simple – the wording of the
questionnaire is very important.

 Avoid leading questions which direct the respondent in a particular way e.g. isn’t it true
to say that...

 Avoid jargon and technical terms - make sure the question is unambiguous - each
question should only have a single interpretation.

 Watch out for double questions - that is those asking two separate questions at once

2. Interviews

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 Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study are humans.

 Interviews are a type of survey where questions are delivered in a face-to-face encounter
by an interviewer

 is like a conversation and has the purpose of obtaining information relevant to a particular
research topic.

 It is initiated by the researcher and is focused on specific content.

 Structured interviews maximize reliability and are easier to classify and quantify.

 unstructured interviews can give a greater insight and more in-depth understanding of the
topic researched, but need more expertise to control and more time for analysis

 General tips for carrying out interviews:

• Begin with an explanation of who you are and what the survey is about and ensure
confidentiality.

 • Try to achieve rapport with the respondent: be friendly and look as if you are enjoying
the interview and are interested in what they have to say.

 • Be aware of the importance of body language in face-to face interviews.

3. Focus Groups

 is a type of interview that involves carefully selected individuals who usually do not
know each other.

 They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the researcher.

 These individuals are selected as they hold particular characteristics which

 the researcher believes are necessary to the topic of focus.

 Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data which gives an insight
into attitudes and perceptions difficult to obtain using other procedures.

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 The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing predetermined open ended
questions which the respondents answer in any way they choose.

4. Document Analysis

 refers to the process of using any kind of document, films, television programs and
photographs as well as written sources, such as books, papers and letters, for analysis in
relation to a particular research question. It can be used as the singular method of
research or as a supplementary form of inquiry.

 Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis, differs from the majority of
research methods in two major ways.

 - It is an indirect form of research; it is something that has been produced, so the

investigator is not generating original data.

- It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method. This refers to the fact that the document will not
be affected in any way by your research; it cannot react as a human can.

 Reliability and validity are central concerns in document analysis.

Reliability: means dependability or trustworthiness

Validity: refers to the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
and permits appropriate interpretation of information

 Data collection: a recording unit must be defined.

 General guidelines for carrying out document analysis:

• Decide initially on categories for research,

• Keep focused; do not let your research become too wide.

5. Mathematical Modeling

 Mathematical modeling can be used to analyze relationships between different variables

and to predict possible outcomes, or causal effects.

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 Experiments can be designed from models of systems, which aim to define links between
variables and outcomes.

6. The experimental method

 involves setting up an experiment in order to test a particular theory or hypothesis.

 is concerned with seeing what changes occur if something new is tried out and with the
effects of these changes on something else

 The researcher should deliberately alter at least one particular element or factor of the
study, known as variables, in order to assess the effects of this change on behavior.

 The effect of this alteration is assessed. Measurement is required before, during and after
the experiment.

 The experiment has to be replicable and produce more or less the same results if it is to
have any significance.

 two different types of experiment, the laboratory experiment and the field experiment.

6.1. Laboratory experiments

 the researcher will conduct a small-scale study where subjects can be manipulated,
observed and tested in a highly controlled environment.

 the data obtained is often subjected to statistical analysis

6.2. A field experiment

 takes place outside the laboratory.

 leads to a decrease in researcher control, which may hide the effects of changes made, but
the results gained can be still be generalized to the real world

 Research into human behavior tested by experimentation is subject to much criticism for
ethical reasons.

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Experimental Research is often used where:

• There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),

• There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and

• The magnitude of the correlation is great.

 General tips for carrying out experiments:

 • Careful preparation is essential and experienced researchers should be consulted before

experimentation begins.

• Project design, sample selection and measurement of dependent variables are crucial to the
success of the research.

7. Observation studies

 Observation refers to the process of observing and recording events or situations.

 The technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals or groups of people
or animals behave, act or react.

 two main types of observation - participant and nonparticipant:

7.1 Participant observation: The researcher becomes part of the group studied and participates
in their daily life and activities: observing their everyday situations and their behavior in these
situations.

7.2 In non-participant observation the researchers simply observe the activities without taking
part themselves. Whilst this has the advantage of preventing the researcher from unduly
influencing or becoming involved in activities they may not wish to take part in (for example
dangerous or criminal actions), they are less likely to understand fully the meanings behind
behavior in the group studied.

 In human observation studies the observer can remain covert, hiding their true identity as
a researcher, or overt, where their identity is revealed to those studied.

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 It is argued that covert research will lead to a more valid study as the subjects are less
likely to modify their behavior if they do not know they are the subjects of research.

Advantages and disadvantages of observation studies

 Data collection: It is impossible to keep a record of everything and you must decide at
the outset where your interests lie.

 You may decide to film or tape record events, although the cost of this may be quite
substantial.

 Data is often recorded through writing up notes in private after the event or you could set
up your own complex system with specific categories of behavior for post-observation
recordings using graphs, charts and plans.

 What is important is careful preparation before observation begins;

Research Ethics

 Ethics is one of the most crucial areas of research, with deception, misconduct and abuses
in research increasingly becoming a crucial area of discussion

 Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the people
they study

Reporting Research Findings

Writing a Scientific Report

One of the most basic means of communication in our professional life is written presentation,
such as scientific paper, technical report, assignment report, abstract, theses, conference report,
etc.

Written presentations have one striking characteristics which is different from that of verbal
presentations, that is, written they are exposed to readers.

The communication between author(s) and readers are in indirect way.

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Technical Report Writing
In contrast, verbal presentations are exposed to an audience; Poster is a kind of combination of
written presentation and verbal representation. Thus,

 to avoid any confusion on the part of the reader, written

 presentations demand logic, clarity and precision.

3.4. Organizing and outlining information

Before writing the initial draft, all the ideas are organized in a way that will make the document
flow nicely. A good way of doing this is to write all random thoughts down on a paper, and then
circle all main sections, connect the main sections to supporting ideas with lines, and deletes all
irrelevant material.

Once each idea is organized, the writer can then organize the document as a whole. This can be
accomplished in various ways:

 Chronological: This is used for documents that involve a linear process, such as a step-
by-step guide describing how to accomplish something.
 Parts of an object: Used for documents which describe the parts of an object, such as a
graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.)

 Simple to Complex (or vice versa): Starts with the easy-to-understand ideas, and
gradually goes deeper into complex ideas.

 Specific to General: Starts with many ideas, and then organizes the ideas into sub-
categories.

 General to Specific: Starts with a few categories of ideas, and then goes deeper.

Once the whole document is organized, it's a good idea to create a final outline, which will show
all the ideas in an easy-to-understand document. Creating an outline makes the entire writing
process much easier and will save the author time.

3.5. Writing the first draft

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After the outline is completed, the next step is to write the first draft. The goal is to write down
ideas from the outline as quickly as possible. Setting aside blocks of one hour or more, in a place
free of distractions, will help the writer maintain a flow. Also, the writer should wait until the
draft is complete to do any revising; stopping to revise at this stage will break the writer's flow.
The writer should start with the section that is easiest for them, and write the summary only after
the body is drafted.

The ABC (Abstract, Body, and Conclusion) format can be used when writing a first draft. The
Abstract describes the subject to be written about, so that the reader knows what he or she is
going to be told in the document. The Body is the majority of the paper, in which the topics are
covered in depth. Lastly, the Conclusion section restates the main topics of the paper.

The ABC format can also be applied to individual paragraphs, beginning with a topic sentence
that clearly states the paragraph's topic. This is followed by the topic, and finally, the paragraph
closes with a concluding sentence.

3.6. Revising and Editing

Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the draft into a
final copy. Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form:

3.6.1. Adjusting and reorganizing content

During this step, the draft is revisited to 1) focus or elaborate on certain topics which deserve
more attention, 2) shorten other sections, and 3) shift around certain paragraphs, sentences, or
entire topics.

 Are the points-content- relevant? Delete irrelevant ones.

 Are ideas put following some logical development?

 Is interlink between sentences, paragraphs, sections, etc. appropriate?

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3.6.2. Editing for style

Good style makes the writing more interesting, appealing, or readable. In general the personal
writing style of the writer will not be evident in technical writing. Some changes are made by
choice, not for correctness, and may include:

 adding headings, lists, graphics

 changing passive-voice sentences to an active voice

 defining terminology

 rearranging paragraphs

 shortening paragraphs

 shortening sentences

Technical writing is a discipline that usually requires a technical writer to make particular use of
a style guide. These guides may relate to a specific project, product, company or brand and in
general they ensure that technical writing is devoid of a personal style.

3.6.3. Editing for language grammar

At this point, the document can be checked for grammatical errors, such as comma usage and
common word confusions (for example, there/their/they're).

 Are the sentences grammatical?

 Are the words correctly spelled?

 Are punctuations and capitalizations properly used?

 Are appropriate words and expressions used? Etc.

3.6.4. Edit for context

Determining the necessary amount of context is important. There needs to be a balance between
exuberance, which may lead the audience to take unintended additional meaning from the text,
and terseness, which may leave the audience unable to interpret meaning because of missing
words.

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3.7 Plagiarism

“Plagiarism” refers to the unacknowledged use of other people’s work, whether this work is in
the form of ideas taken without acknowledgment, or sentences copied without documentation.
Plagiarism is intellectual theft.

Plagiarism is an offence under the University’s Code of Conduct (Academic). In the Faculty of
Engineering and Computer Science, first offences have typically been sanctioned with a failing
grade for the course and the requirement to take extra credits in ethics.

Sample Short report

Sample research report

Executive Summary (Summary or Abstract)

The aim of this report was to investigate UniLab staff attitudes to personal mobile phone use in
staff and team meetings. A staff survey on attitudes towards the use of mobile phones in the
staff/team meetings was conducted. The results indicate that the majority of staff find mobile
phone use a major issue in staff meetings. The report concludes that personal mobile phones are
disruptive and should be turned off in meetings. It is recommended that UniLab develops a
company policy banning the use of mobile phones except in exceptional circumstances.

Introduction

There has been a massive increase in the use of personal mobile phones over the past five years
and there is every indication that this will continue. According to Black (2002) by 2008 almost
100% of working people in Australia will carry personal mobile phones. Black describes this
phenomenon as ‘serious in the extreme, potentially undermining the foundations of
communication in our society’ (2002, p 167). Currently at UniLab 89% of staff have personal
mobile phones.

Recently a number of staff have complained about the use of personal mobile phones in meetings

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and asked what the official company policy is. At present there is no official company policy
regarding phone use. This report examines the issue of mobile phone usage in staff meetings and
small team meetings. It does not seek to examine the use of mobile phones in the workplace at
other times, although some concerns were raised.

For the purposes of this report a personal mobile phone is a personally funded phone for private
calls as opposed to an employer funded phone that directly relates to carrying out a particular
job.

Methods

This research was conducted by questionnaire and investigated UniLab staff members’ attitudes
to the use of mobile phones in staff / team meetings. A total of 412 questionnaires were
distributed with employees' fortnightly pay slips (see Appendix 1). The questionnaire used
Lekert scales to assess social attitudes (see Smith 2002) to mobile phone usage and provided
open ended responses for additional comments. Survey collection boxes were located in every
branch for a four week period. No personal information was collected; the survey was voluntary
and anonymous.

Results

There was an 85% response rate to the questionnaire. A breakdown of the responses is listed
below in Table 1. It can be clearly seen from the results that mobile phones are considered to be
disruptive and should be turned off in meetings.

Table 1: Personal mobile phone usage in staff and team meetings

Personal mobile phone usage in Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
staff and team meetings is… agree% % % disagree %
Not a problem 5 7 65 23
An issue 40 45 10 5
Disruptive 80 10 7 3

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Phones should be permissible 6 16 56 22
Phones should be turned off 85 10 3 2
Allowed in some circumstances 10 52 24 14
The survey also allowed participants to identify any circumstances where mobile phones should
be allowed in meetings and also assessed staff attitudes towards receiving personal phone calls in
staff meetings in open ended questions. These results showed that staff thought that in some
circumstances, eg medical or emergencies, receiving personal phone calls was acceptable, but
generally receiving personal phone calls was not necessary.

Discussion / Interpretation of Results

It can be seen from the results in Table 1 that personal mobile phone use is considered to a
problem; however it was acknowledged that in some situations it should be permissible. 80% of
recipients considered mobile phones to be highly disruptive and there was strong support for
phones being turned off in meetings (85%). Only 12% thought that mobile phone usage in staff
and team meetings was not a problem, whereas 85% felt it was an issue. The results are
consistent throughout the survey. Many of the respondents (62%) felt that in exceptional
circumstances mobile phones should be allowed, eg medical, but there should be protocols
regarding this.

These findings are consistent with other studies. According to Smith (2005) many companies
have identified mobile phones as disruptive and have banned the use of mobile phones in
meetings. Havir (2004) claims that 29% of staff meeting time is wasted through unnecessary
mobile phone interruptions. This affects time management, productivity and team focus.
Conclusion
The use of mobile phones in staff meetings is clearly disruptive and they should be switched off.
Most staff felt it is not necessary to receive personal phone calls in staff meetings except under
certain circumstances, but permission should first be sought from the team leader, manager or
chair.

Recommendations

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It is recommended that UniLab develops an official policy regarding the use of mobile phones in
staff meetings. The policy should recommend:
• mobile phones are banned in staff meetings
• mobiles phone may be used in exceptional circumstances but only with the permission of the
appropriate manager or chair

Finally, the policy needs to apply to all staff in the company.

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