03 - Design of Conveyances

Design of Conveyance and
CHAPTER 3
Distribution Systems
Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

3.1 Types of Water Conveyance structures
• Conveyance systems serve to transfer water from the source to the
treatment plant and from the treatment plant to consumers.
• Open canals or pressure conduits (pipes) can be used for this purpose.
• Open canals in water supply are concrete structures which are seldom
used to transport water from the source to the treatment plant.

Pipe lines and Appurtenances:
• Pipes are the most widely used conveyance devices.
• Pipes for water supply works are made from the following
materials:
o Pre-stressed Concrete,
o Asbestos Cement,
o Ductile iron,
o Cast iron,
o Steel,
o Reinforced Concrete,
o Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP), and
o Polyethylene, low or medium density.
o Other types (eg. Copper).

Asbestos cement
Pre-stressed concrete
Steel pipes Ductile Iron

Glass reinforced plastic pipes Reinforced concrete
PVC pipes HDPE pipes

Copper pipes

• Selection of pipe materials depends upon
o carrying capacity of the pipe
o durability and period of life
o quality of water,
o ease of transportation and handling,
o availability,
o Cost (Initial and maintenance)
o strength (able to resist internal pressure and external stresses due
to overlying soil, traffic and impact factor),
• Pipes which are more economical and fulfill all the above
requirements should be adopted for use.

Example:
• Steel pipe:
 strong, very light weight and can withstand higher
 pressure than cast iron pipes.
 cheap, easy to construct and can be easily
 transported
 cannot withstand external loads,
 affected by corrosion and are costly to maintain.
• Plastic pipes:
 corrosion resistant,
 light weight and economical.
 Rigid (unplasticized) uPVC is stronger and can withstand much
higher pressure for a given wall thickness.

• Along with pipes, there are pipe appurtenances:
 Joints: are used to connect large number of pipe lengths.
 Valves: are devices used to control the flow of water in the pipe
line.
 Hydrants: are used to take water for fire fighting.
 Water meters: are devices used to measure the amount of water

flowing through it.
 Stop cock or Water tap

Joints [pipe fittings]
Different types of PVC fittings Different types of PE fittings

Valves Fire Hydrants
Water meters

3.2 Layout and Design of Water Conveyances
• Whatever the type may be, water conveyance structures require a
considerable capital investment.
• Thus, both the open conveyance channel (if any) and the pipe
distribution system shall be carefully designed.
Design of open channels:
• The criteria for design of lined canals:
 Dimensions fairly accurately computed using uniform flow
formula
 Velocity of flow should not be very low to avoid siltation
 Can also be designed based on best hydraulic section

• The shape of the canal could be:
 Rectangular (common)
 Trapezoidal (more stable)
 Parabolic (efficient but workmanship is
difficult)
 Triangular (if the flow is small)
 Design Procedure….
Step 1. Estimate n and select S
Step 2. For known Q, compute the section factor. i.e.
nQ
AR 
2/3
S
Step 3. Substitute the expressions for A and R and solve d. If b and z
are unknown, assume the values and solve for d by trial and error.

• Best hydraulic section … the section which carry maximum
discharge for a given excavation. i.e. a section with max. R or min. P.
P
Mathematically, 0
d

Example: Rectangular Channel
A
A  bd  b  d
d
b
A
P  b  2d  P   2d
d
P A
 2  2  0  A  2d 2
d d d=b/2
 A  2d 2  bd  b  2d b=2d
The best hydraulic section of a rectangular channel is when it is made half a
square.
Similarly, the best hydraulic section of a trapezoidal channel is when it

made half a regular hexagon.

Design Procedure for best Hydraulic section:
1. For known V, estimate A, A=Q/V
2. Determine the value of R from A

3. Determine the cross sectional dimensions using expressions in the Table for
the profile selected.
Assignment: Find the expressions for dimensions of most efficient sections of

• Triangular channel
• Parabolic channel

3.3 Layout and Design of Pipe Distribution systems
• Pipe Distribution systems --- network of pipes that transport

water from treatment plant to consumer’s taps.
• Function: transport water from treatment plant to consumer’s

taps.
• Purpose: to develop adequate water pressure at various points
of the consumer’s taps.
• Distribution system represent the vast majority of physical
infrastructure for water supplies. It includes the following
components
 Pipe lines: mains, sub-mains, branches/ laterals
 Flow control and measurement devices – Valves, hydrants,
meters, service connections, pumps, services
 Storage reservoirs – ground and elevated tanks
 Pump stations – civil and electro-mechanical works, pumps

Water Conveyance network

and flow process

A good distribution system should :

• Maintain degree of water purity, i.e. be water tight;
• Provide sufficient pressure at consumer’s tap;
• Ensure availability of ample water for all purposes;
• Offer easy and economical maintenance;
• Supply sufficient amount of water during emergency periods,
such as fire breakouts;
• Be able to supply water even during breakdown of a pipeline;
• Not cause any obstruction to the traffic during repair and
maintenance.
• Be cheap with least capital construction cost
• Safe design. i.e. avoid failure by bursting of pipes.

Depending upon the level of the source of water and the city,
topography of the area, and other local considerations, the method
of distribution could be:
1. Gravitational system,
2. Pumping without storage system, and
3. Dual system with storage.
• Flow by action of gravity without

any pumping
• most economical, and reliable for
cities situated at foothills
Gravity System

• treated water is directly pumped
into the distribution mains without
storing
• high lift pumps operate at variable
speeds to match variable water
demand
• disadvantageous (power failure) as
there will no reserve flow
Pumping without storage
• treated water is pumped at a constant rate to
elevated reservoir and distributed to the
consumers by gravity
• excess water during low demand period gets
stored in the reservoir to supply during high
demand periods.
• pumps work at uniform rate
• quite reliable (even during power failure)
Dual system with storage
Pipes in the distribution network according to size are:
• Primary or mains: carry water from the pumping stations and from
storage facilities to the various districts of the city.
• Secondary lines or Sub-mains: run from one primary main to another
• Small distribution mains or branches: supply water to every
consumer and to the fire hydrants
Flow of water in the distribution system:
• Usually follow the road layout
• Generally laid on one side of the road
 ~ 2m below the footpaths and
 ~2 to 3 m away from sewer pipes
The four types of distribution system layouts are:
• Dead-end/branch/tree system,
• Grid iron/reticulation/interlaced system,
• Ring system/circular system, and
• Radial system.
Assignment:
What are the advantages
and disadvantages of dead
end/branch system?
Dead end/Branch system

Assignment:
and disadvantages of grid
iron system?
Grid iron system

Assignment:
and disadvantages of ring
system?
Ring system

Assignment:
and disadvantages of radial
system?
Radial system

Water Reservoirs:
Nearly all water supply systems include storage facility.
Storage tanks can be used to:
• cover peaks in demand
• smooth out variations in supply
• provide water security in case of supply interruptions or disaster
• Provide water to meet fire demands
• enable a smaller pipe to serve for a distant source
Total storage capacity of a storage tank is the summation of:
• Balancing storage
• Break-down storage and
• Fire storage

Water Reservoirs:
Based on their elevation relative to the ground, storage tank can be
grouped into:
1. Surface tank
2. Elevated tank
1. Surface Tanks:
• Are circular or rectangular tanks, constructed at ground level.
• In general they are constructed at high points in the city.
• If a city has more than one high point more than one reservoir
may be provided.
• Usually service reservoirs are two in number or may have two
compartments if it is single for reasons of operation of the other
when one is in repair.

Surface Tank

2. Elevated Tanks:
• Are circular or rectangular tanks, constructed at ground level.
• could be rectangular, circular or elliptical
• erected at a suitable elevation above the ground level and
supported on towers.
• They are constructed when the pressure requirement
necessitate considerable elevation above the ground.
• They are adopted in general for towns with flat topography and
where there is no pronounced higher point.
• Water towers made of RC are preferred to steel-to-steel tanks,
because they are cheaper, don’t corrode and require less
maintenance.
• Elevated tanks are very costly and hence not designed for
capacities of more than 6 to 8 hours of the average daily supply
of the city.

Circular (small) Rectangular (small) Circular (Large)
Elevated Tanks
Design of Pipe Distribution System:

Water municipality systems consist of many junctions or nodes;
many sources, and many outlets (loads).
Object for designing a system is to deliver flow to these junctions

and outlets at some design pressure with the lowest cost.
Nowadays, software makes the design of these systems easier than

in the past. However, it’s important to understand what the
softwares are doing.

Design Steps:
1. Surveys and Maps
• The land lying between the source of water supply and the
distribution area is surveyed for fixing up the alignment of main
line.
• The distribution area is also completely surveyed.
 Detailed map of the town (distribution area)/Master plan–
positions of roads, streets, lanes, commercial places,
industrial area, etc.
 Topographic map of the area – to locate the high and low
areas
 Cross-sections of the streets, lanes, etc. – showing
positions of existing underground service lines such as
electric and telephone lines, sewer lines, existing water
supply lines, etc

2. Tentative layouts
• Mark a tentative layout of the distribution lines on the map.
• Mark the positions of treatment plant, distribution mains,

distribution and balancing reservoirs, valves and hydrants, etc.
• Compute and mark the density of the population (i.e. average

number of persons per area).


3. Discharge in pipe lines:

• The demand at each junction and hence the discharge carried
by each pipe line is computed based on:
 density of the population,
 type of distribution district (i.e. residential, commercial,
etc.)
Branched system
Looped Network

4. Calculation of pipe diameters:

• The size of distribution pipes are so fixed that the min.
necessary pressure head is maintained at all points.
• For known design discharges, the pipe diameters are assumed

in such a way that the velocities of flow in pipes remain
between 0.6 to 2m/sec.
• Normally, smaller velocity is assumed for pipes of smaller

diameter and large velocity for pipes of larger diameter

Design Considerations:
• Design flow:
 Peak hour demand or maximum day demand + Fire
demand, whichever is greater.
• Minimum main sizes:

 generally 150mm;
 small communities = 50-75mm
• Velocity: typical values –

 minimum = 0.6-1m/s
 maximum = 2m/s

Design Considerations:
• Pressure:
 The effective head should be maintained to give higher flows and
serve upper storey consumers [min. ~14m].
 Choice of design pressures to be maintained in the distribution
pipes depends on cost & convenience.
 The greater the design pressure the costlier it will be but it will be
convenient to the consumers.
 Pressure zoning is desirable and economical in hilly areas of wide
variations in elevations of houses,
 Deign controlling factors are topography and friction head loss.
• Size of distribution pipes:

 Pipe diameter is determined on the basis of velocity/least cost
design
 Use larger pipe for the trunk mains & smaller for local mains.


Network Analysis…the determination of discharges and head

losses in each pipeline, and pressure heads at junction points.
Network analysis is not only important for designing new systems,
but also for monitoring and upgrading existing systems.
The following are the applications of network analysis.

• To assess the capacities of existing systems,
• To control pressure and reduce pumping cost,
• Design of new systems,
• Water quality monitoring, and
• Investigation of the effect of damage to main, storage tank
locations, and other scenarios.

Important Concepts in Network Analysis

























Types of Network Systems

Distribution Network Analysis
A. Design procedures – Branching system:
Requirements: The sizes of the pipes should ensure availability of
water at the end points (terminals) of the pipes, with the minimum
allowable pressure at the time of maximum demand.
Steps:
1. Assign the required demand at each node or dead end
2. Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
3. Assume possible pipe diameters
4. Calculate the head loss through that pipe
5. Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.
6. Compare this terminal pressure with the desired minimum and
maximum pressures.
7. If the required condition is not satisfied, then repeat steps (3)
through (6) until the required conditions are met.

Distribution Network Analysis
B. Design procedures – Looped system:

Network Analysis – Computer Programs
The use of computer programs has become common due to their
important advantages over that of manual methods.
The advantages include:
• The softwares relieve engineers from tedious and iterative
calculations and enable them focus on important aspects of the
design.
• The softwares better incorporate the complex real world system
• The softwares allow investigation of alternative designs over a wider
range of conditions
• Increased speed and memory at reduced cost.
• Analysis of large networks.
• Graphical presentation of results
• Easy identification of problems
• Common computer programs: EPANET/WATERCAD/WATERGEMS

The use of computer programs has become common due to their
important advantages over that of manual methods.
The advantages include:
• The softwares relieve engineers from tedious and iterative
calculations and enable them focus on important aspects of the
design.
• The softwares better incorporate the complex real world system
• The softwares allow investigation of alternative designs over a wider
range of conditions
• Increased speed and memory at reduced cost.
• Analysis of large networks.
• Graphical presentation of results
• Easy identification of problems
• Common computer programs: EPANET/WATERCAD/WATERGEMS

Important features of a typical hydraulic analysis model:
• Representation. The various elements of a water distribution system
are represented as network of links and nodes in the model.
Element Representation
Pipes Links
Reservoir, storage tanks, pumps, etc. Node

• Skeletonization. selecting and including those pipe network parts that
have significant impacts in the behavior of the system.
• Demand allocation. Water withdrawal rate at each node can be
estimated manually. One useful method follows:
 Using land use or zoning maps estimate the water demand for
each type of land use.
 Overlay the water distribution system map over the land use map
and determine the applicable demand at each node.
 Major water users should be considered separately and applied to
the closest nodes.

• System inputs. Input requirements vary from system element to
element as indicated in the table below.
• Model outputs. Outputs of a typical model run may include

flow rate, head loss, velocity in each pipe, pressure at each
node, residual chlorine, etc.

Thank You

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Design of Conveyance and

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Steel pipes Ductile Iron

Glass reinforced plastic pipes Reinforced concrete

PVC pipes HDPE pipes

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

 Hydrants: are used to take water for fire fighting.

 Water meters: are devices used to measure the amount of water

 Stop cock or Water tap

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Different types of PVC fittings Different types of PE fittings

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Similarly, the best hydraulic section of a trapezoidal channel is when it

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Assignment: Find the expressions for dimensions of most efficient sections of

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

• Pipe Distribution systems --- network of pipes that transport

• Function: transport water from treatment plant to consumer’s

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Water Conveyance network

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

A good distribution system should :

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

• Flow by action of gravity without

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Dead end/Branch system

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Grid iron system

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Circular (small) Rectangular (small) Circular (Large)

Design of Pipe Distribution System:

Object for designing a system is to deliver flow to these junctions

Nowadays, software makes the design of these systems easier than

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

• Mark the positions of treatment plant, distribution mains,

• Compute and mark the density of the population (i.e. average

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

3. Discharge in pipe lines:

Advanced Hydraulic Structures for Water Supply

4. Calculation of pipe diameters: