Chapter 5: Subsurface Flow

of Geothermal Fluids
Presenter: IRANZI JOSEPH
 I. General overview of the chapter

❖The fluid (steam or liquids) flows, plays critical roles in geothermal energy resources.

❖Generally, if there is no flow or prevented from flowing, regardless of the availability of the hot rock,

geothermal energy becomes complicated.

❖Otherwise, sophisticated and expensive engineered or enhanced geothermal technology can be applied.

❖In the porous media, the fluid flow is governed by the concept of porosity and permeability. To

understand the subsurface flow of geothermal fluids, need a deep understanding of the porosity and

permeability.
 (Left picture) shows the geothermal hot spring pond, and (Right picture), shows the (left) hot spring pond

dried after the subsurface geothermal fluid conduit diverted and no longer discharges the hot water to the

left pond.
❖This hot spring pond is located in Rwanda’s western part, one of the geothermal resources related to

volcanic activities. the up flow of the geothermal fluid is controlled by two main faults located in the

region. Which facilitates the fluid flow from underneath to the surface at the discharge rate (15L/s)
 II. Chapter objectives
• At the end of this chapter, we will be able to understand:

1. The difference between porosity and permeability, and their contribution to the geothermal system
evaluation.

2. Both matrix porosity and permeability and fracture porosity and permeability and how they relate
to each other.

3. How to apply Darcy’s law to calculate various parameters of the subsurface flow of fluids,
including permeability, discharge, or total volume of flow through the rock.

4. Explain how fracture spacing and width of fractures affect porosity and permeability.

5. Evaluate the change in porosity with depth compared to the change in permeability with depth,
and explain their difference in behavior considering fracture transmissivity.
 III. Matrix porosity and permeability
❖In general, a geological material is characterized by two types of porosity and permeability; is matrix

porosity and permeability and the other is fracture porosity and permeability (discussed below

section).

❖The matrix porosity and permeability are primary or intrinsic qualities of the rock. matrix porosity

concept defines the ratio of the volume of voids to solid rock and is measured as a percentage; while

matrix permeability refers to porous media (rock)’s ability to transmit the fluid (typically it’s a

measure of how the rock voids are connected to allow fluid flow) and it can be measured in Darcy’s

(d) or millidarcys (md).

❖Normally, the permeability is measured in meter square (m2), a system of international unity (SI),

however, it is often described in terms of Darcy.

 III. Matrix porosity and permeability Cont.'s
❖A Darcy is defined as the volumetric flow rate of a fluid of 1 cm3/sec having a viscosity (shear

strength or resistance to flow) of 1 centipoise (which is typical for water at about 20°C) over a cross-

sectional area of 1 cm2 under a pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere per centimeter. The conversion is

that 1 Darcy equals 9.87 × 10e-13 m2 or 0.987 × 10e-6 µ m2.

❖Finally, because a unit of the area does not intuitively translate into fluid transmissibility or flow rate,

the permeability of soil or rock can also be expressed as the flux of water under hydrostatic pressure

or head of ~0.1 bar/m at 20°C. In this case, 1 Darcy equals 0.831 m/day.

❖In general, the convection of hydrothermal fluids, due to heating and buoyancy effects, requires a

minimum permeability of about 5 mD, Results of porosity simulation models indicate a fracture

permeability from 50 to 500 md (5 × 10–14 to 5 × 10–13 m2 ) to match observed well flow rates

(averaging about 200 kg/s per well) from producing geothermal wells.
 VI. Darcy’s law
𝐾 𝑃𝑏 −𝑃𝑎
❖Fluid discharge: 𝑄 = − × 𝐴 ×
𝜇 𝐿

❖Where: 𝑄: discharge (m3/s), 𝐾: Permeability (m2), 𝜇: Dynamic viscosity (Pa.s or Kg/(m.s)), 𝐴: cross-section

area (m2), 𝑃𝑏 : Final pressure (Pa), 𝑃𝑎 : Initial pressure (Pa), 𝐿: Length (m). The negative sign indicates the

flow is always from high pressure to low pressure.

𝐾
❖ Darcy flux (q (m/s)) can be obtained by dividing the discharge by the area: 𝑞 = − 𝜇 × 𝛻𝑃 .

❖The actual velocity is related to the Darcy flux multiplied by porosity percentage, v = 𝑞 × ∅.

❖Where: v: Fluid velocity (m/s), 𝑞: Darcy flux (m/s), ∅ = Porosity percentage, 𝛻𝑃:Pressure gradient (Pa)
 VI. Darcy’s law Cont.’s
❖The key implications of Darcy’s law are as follows:

❖If there is no pressure gradient, fluids will not flow.

❖If there is a pressure gradient, the flow will be from high to low pressure (hence the negative sign).

❖The greater the pressure gradient, the greater the discharge or flux.

❖For a given pressure gradient, the discharge rate will vary with different geologic materials.

❖Note: Darcy’s law is valid for only slow, viscous flow, which applies to groundwater in most cases. The

law does not apply, for example, under high flow conditions as can occur in geothermal wells. In the latter

case, flow rates are dictated mainly by buoyancy forces and the extent of the hydrostatic head.
 V. Subsurface flow based on the matrix porosity and permeability

Fig.1. Illustration showing porosity (white circles) and permeability (small arrows). Large arrows indicate

the direction of the hydraulic gradient. In part (B), which flow path, a or b, will have greater permeability?

❖Fig.1.A shows that the flux will be zero, which requires that permeability (κ) must also be zero. In

Fig.1.B two flow paths are noted, a and b., in path a, there is a greater pressure gradient (∇P), and the

diameters of the connected pores are larger, resulting in greater permeability (κ).
V. Subsurface flow based on the matrix porosity and permeability Cont.’s
❖Thus, the same material can have anisotropy in permeability, in which flow can be favored in certain

directions, depending on the geometry and distribution of pores. Other important factors affecting

permeability besides pore connectivity include the following: (1) Tortuosity of fluid paths, (2) Pore size,

and (3) Surface tension effects.

❖Tortuosity is defined as the ratio of the actual flow path length to the straight distance between the ends of

the flow path; small pores have high surface area-to-volume ratios compared to large pores, with more

surface area per given volume for water to adhere. A material having many small connected pores can

have a lower permeability than another material with lower connected porosity but a larger pore size.

❖Another parameter worth noting is hydraulic conductivity (K), which measures a material’s ability to

permit fluid flow. Hydraulic conductivity is given by the κ/µ term in Darcy’s law multiplied by the

specific weight of the fluid (density of material times acceleration of gravity).

V. Subsurface flow based on the matrix porosity and permeability Cont.’s
❖Just as with permeability, hydraulic conductivity can vary over several orders of magnitude for a variety

of geologic materials. Also like permeability, hydraulic conductivity can vary with direction and the

distance over which it is considered. The permeability and hydraulic conductivity are key factors when

assessing the prospective level of a geothermal reservoir.

 VI. Fracture porosity and permeability
❖This is a secondary process imposed on the rocks due to Earth’s forces causing rocks to break.

❖These fractures could be joints or faults. Faults form from tectonic forces, and different orientations of

faults reflect a changing stress history with time. Joints can also reflect tectonic forces, but they can also

form from the unloading or heating and cooling of rock.

❖Fracture porosity is the ratio of the amount of open space in fractures to the volume of solid rock.

Depending on the spacing and size of fractures, fracture porosity can be many times greater than matrix

porosity.

❖Fracture permeability refers to how the fracture’s ability to transmit the fluid, it can be greater than

intrinsic matrix permeability. Also, fracture permeability can make a rock with low matrix permeability.

❖Note: high fracture porosity does not necessarily imply high fracture permeability if the fractures fail to

connect
 VI. Fracture porosity and permeability Cont.’s

Fig.2. Diagrammatic view across a rock face showing three types of fractures. White areas denote open or
pore space. This rock face has high matrix porosity but little matrix permeability, which is restricted to
fractures A and B. Note that fracture walls of A are rough and include mineral precipitates, whereas fracture
B has smooth walls. Fracture C, although porous, has no permeability.
 VII. Hydraulic Fracture Conductivity, Permeability, and
Transmissivity
❖Critical factors that control fracture permeability are the aperture size (width) of the fractures, the spacing

of the fractures, and the orientation of fractures in relation to the hydraulic gradient.

❖Hydraulic fracture conductivity reflects the ability of a fluid to flow along a fracture.

❖𝐾𝑓𝑟 = 𝜌 𝑔Τ𝜇 × 𝑎2 × 12

❖where 𝐾𝑓𝑟 = Fracture hydraulic conductivity (m/s), 𝜌 = Density of the fluid, 𝑔 = Acceleration of gravity, µ =

Dynamic viscosity (Pa·s or kg/m·s), and 𝑎 = Aperture of fracture.

❖The actual discharge of a fluid at some velocity across a fracture of a given width or aperture size (a)

reflects a fracture’s transmissivity (𝑇𝑓𝑟 ) or flux and is defined by Hydraulic fracture conductivity reflects

the ability of a fluid to flow along a fracture.

❖𝑇𝑓𝑟 = 𝑎 × 𝐾𝑓𝑟 = 𝜌 𝑔Τ𝜇 × 𝑎3 × 12

VIII. Hydraulic Fracture Conductivity, Permeability, and
Transmissivity

Fig.3. Log–log plot of flux and permeability as a

function of different pressure gradients. A change
in pressure gradient results in a comparable change
in flux for a given permeability. Also shown are the
permeabilities of common geologic materials. Note
that the permeability for highly fractured rock is
still much greater than porous and permeable
loosely consolidated gravel.
VII. Hydraulic Fracture Conductivity, Permeability, and
Transmissivity

Fig.4. Graph plotting fracture permeability and

fracture porosity as a function of fracture spacing
and fracture width. Note that fracture width is a
much more important control of permeability
compared to fracture spacing.
 VIII. FLOW RATES AND POWER OUTPUT

❖Power is related to the mass flow rate by the following equation:

❖P = Q × 𝜌 × 𝐶𝑝 × ∆𝑇 ; where P= Power (kJ/s). (Q × 𝜌) = Mass flow rate (volume discharge rate times
density), 𝐶𝑝 = Heat capacity of steam (about 2.0 kJ/kg·K), and ∆𝑇= Temperature drop of steam entering and
leaving turbine (K).
❖For example; a moderate flux of 10–5 m3/m2·s, multiplied by the density of water (1000 kg/m3 ) gives 10–2
kg/m2·s or the mass flow rate per unit of area. If a geothermal well has a diameter of 30 cm and intersects
a geothermal reservoir for a depth of 30 m, the surface area of well pipe exposed to reservoir rock is about
28 m2.
❖Assuming that a slotted liner reduces the exposed surface area of the well pipe and flow rate through the
intersected rock by about 40%, the exposed surface area of well pipe is about 17 m2. Multiplying this
result by 10–2 kg/m2·s yields a mass flow rate of 0.17 kg/s.
❖As the fluid rises in the pipe, pressure is reduced, causing the fluid to start flashing to steam. Assuming
that about 30% of the fluid flashes to steam at the wellhead, the mass flow rate of steam to the turbine is
about 0.051 kg/s (0.17 kg/s × 0.30).
❖A common temperature drop of incoming and outgoing steam is about 50 K. Inserting these values
yields the following: Power output = 0.051 kg/s × 2.0 kJ/kg·K × 50 K = 5.1 kJ/s = 0.0051 MWe
 IX. CHANGES IN POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY WITH
DEPTH

Fig.5. (Left) Graph showing the change in porosity with a depth of sediments for the Norwegian continental
shelf. (Right) Change in permeability with depth. Note the exponential change compared to the linear change
for porosity with depth and that the greatest change occurs in the first 5 km of depth. The deepest drill hole
(about 12 km depth) is shown for reference in the upper right part of the diagram.
 IX. CHANGES IN POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY WITH
DEPTH Cont.’s
❖ In principle, porosity decreases with depth in response to increasing the overburden pressure, which
affects both primary matrix and secondary fracture porosity due to rock compression.
❖ The extent of compression depends on rock strength, Loosely consolidated sediments will compress more
than a strong crystalline rock such as granite at depth.
❖ Fig.5 (left), shows the spread in the data that probably reflects different types of sediments encountered at
the depth of the coarser sandy layers will compress less for a given depth than clay-rich layers. Thus,
porosity decreases more or less linearly with depth
❖ Also, permeability is very sensitive to aperture size; a small reduction in pore size or fracture width, due to
compression, can have a large impact on permeability. Fig.5 (Right) shows that permeability decreases
exponentially, with the greatest reduction in the first 5 km of depth.
❖ Note: permeabilities in the first 5 km vary by about 6 orders of magnitude, making predictive models
difficult for geothermal wells (see Fig.5 (Right). This first 5 km, is the main target zone for developing
current and future geothermal energy resources.
 X. POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY OF PRODUCING
GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS
❖ In a survey of existing geothermal reservoirs, those that
are dominated by matrix porosity must have higher
porosity to achieve a given permeability than that of
fracture-dominated systems.
❖ This latter point illustrates the importance again of
fractures in generating permeability so fluids can flow
and move heat from the subsurface for geothermal
direct use or production of electricity.

Fig.6. Graph plotting change in

permeability and porosity for a variety of
geothermal systems.
 XI. Summary and Conclusion

❖ Porosity and permeability are key intrinsic properties affecting the viability of developing a geothermal
system. Porosity reflects the open space in rocks and is measured in percent (e.g., 30% porosity indicates
that about a third of the rock has open space that can be filled with liquid or gas).
❖ Unless those pores are connected, however, the fluid in the pores cannot flow. Permeability measures the
flow of fluid through porous media and has SI units of square meters (m2 ).
❖ Power output depends strongly on mass flow rates, which in turn are governed by permeability. Although
both porosity and permeability decrease with depth, porosity reduction is basically linear, whereas
permeability decreases exponentially within approximately the first 5 km of the crust.
❖ Suggested reading: I recommend reading the field examples (at the end of chapter 5) of the currently
producing geothermal system: Wairakei geothermal field in New Zealand, one controlled by primary
matrix porosity and permeability, while Basin and Range Province of the western United States is a truly
developed geothermal system based on the fracture porosity and permeability.
 Thank you!!
Questions and comments!!