SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 1- 2
System -It is an integrated composite of people products and
processes that provide a capability to satisfy a stated need or
obj.
Closed - a type of system that does not interact significantly
with its environment.
Synthesis - it refers to the combining and structuring of
components to create a feasible system configuration.
Engineering - the applications of principles of science and
mathematics to solve problems.
Mechanism - all phenomena were believed to be explainable
by using only one ultimately simple relation, cause and effect.
Expansionism - it is a doctrine that considers all objects and
events and all experiences of them, as parts of a larger holes.
Morphology - it provides a structure for visualizing the
technological activities of synthesis analysis and Evaluation.
Technology - is broadly defined as the branch of knowledge
that deals with the mechanical industrial arts applied science
and engine.
Throughput - it is the measure of materials are items passing
through a system or process.
System - it is a set of interrelated components functioning
together towards some common objectives or purposes.
Components - these are the operating parts of a systems
consisting of input, process and output.
Cybernetics - it is the study of controls of any system by
using technology.
Operating component - these are type of components that
perform the processing.
Dynamic - these are type of components that are static.
Relationships - these are the links between components and
attributes.
Environment - that remains outside the boundaries of the
system.
Systemology - the science of systems or their formation.
Entropy - it is the degree of disorganization.
Attributes - this are the properties are discernible
manifestations of the components of a system.
Interdisciplinary - or team approach throughout the system
design and development
process to ensure that all design objectives are addressed in an
effective and efficient manner.
Top-down - approach that views the system as a whole.
Physical systems - are those that manifest themselves in
physical form.
Function - The purposeful action performed by a system.
Conceptual systems - Ideas, plans, concepts, and hypotheses
are examples of ___.
System-Of-Systems (SOS) - Related systems that are
normally analyzed individually may be studied as a group, and
the group is often called a ___.
Human-made systems - are those in which human beings
have intervened through components, attributes, and
relationships.
Human-Modified System - is a natural system into which a
human-made system has been integrated as a subsystem.
Homeostasis - Biological organisms are endowed with the
capacity for self-regulation.
True - not every set of items, facts, methods or procedures is a
system.
True - people are not satisfied with the impact of the human
made or technical systems on the natural world and
humankind.
True - the world is increasing in complexity because of
human intervention.
True - engineering in the systems age must be a team activity
where various individuals involved are cognizant of the
important.
True - the external forces in society the economy and the
professional environment will all challenge the stability of the
engineering workforce and affect our ability to attract the most
talented individuals to an engineering career.
True - engineered systems are brought into being and operate
over a life cycle beginning with identification of needs and
ending with phase-out and disposal.
True - the ultimate objective is to define the what's first
deferring the How’s until later.
False – the systems engineering process involves the bottom-
up development of a systems functional and physical
requirements from a basic set of mission objectives.
True - engineering system refers to the organized activity of
technical and supporting people together with design and
evaluation tools and facilities utilized in the process of
bringing the engineered system into being.
False - mechanism consists of the belief that everything can be
reduced be composed or disassembled to simple invisible
parts.
True - the industrial revolution brought about mechanization
the substitution of machines for people as a source of physical
work.
True - systems engineering is an interdisciplinary approach
and compass in the entire technical afford to evolve into and
verify an integrated and life-cycle balanced set of system,
people, product, and process solutions that satisfy customer
needs.
True - systems engineering is an interdisciplinary
collaborative approach to derive evolve and verify a life cycle
balance system solution which satisfies customer expectations
and meets public acceptability.
True - synthesis is sometimes referred to as an
interdisciplinary discipline.
CHAPTER 3-7
Chapter 3: Conceptual Design
Conceptual design - first and most important phase of the
system design and development
Process.
Advanced System Planning and Architecting
Planning and architecting are essential and coequal activities
for bringing a new or improved capability into being.
The overall “program requirements” for bringing the
capability into being initiate an advanced system planning
activity and the development of a program management
plan (PMP)
Defining System Operational Requirements
1. Mission definition - Identification of the prime and
alternate or secondary missions of the system.
2. Performance and physical parameters - Definition of the
operating characteristics or functions of the system (e.g., size,
weight, speed, range, accuracy, flow rate, capacity, transmit,
receive, throughput, etc.)
3. Operational deployment or distribution - Identification of
the quantity of equipment, software, personnel, facilities, and
so on and the expected geographical location to include
transportation and mobility requirements.
4. Operational life cycle (horizon) - Anticipated time that the
system will be in operational use (expected period of
sustainment).
5. Utilization requirements - Anticipated usage of the system
and its elements (e.g., hours of operation per day, percentage
of total capacity, operational cycles per month, facility
loading)
6. Effectiveness factors - System requirements specified as
figures-of-merit (FOMs)
7. Environmental factors - Definition of the environment in
which the system is expected to operate (e.g., temperature,
humidity, arctic or tropics, mountainous or flat terrain,
airborne, ground, or shipboard)
System Maintenance and support
The maintenance and support concept developed during the
conceptual design phase evolves from the definition of system
operational requirements.
Maintenance plan - defines the follow-on requirements for
system support based on a known design configuration.
Maintenance concept provides the foundation that leads to
the design and
development of the maintenance and support infrastructure
and defines the specific
design-to requirements for the various elements of support
(e.g., the supply support
capability, transportation and handling equipment, test and
support equipment, and
facilities) and the results of supportability analysis.
Maintenance and support concept generally includes the
following items:
1. Levels of maintenance - Maintenance level pertains
to the division of functions and tasks for each area
where maintenance is performed.
2. Repair policies - A repair policy may dictate that an
item should be designed such that, in the event of
failure, it should be nonrepairable, partially
repairable, or fully repairable.
3. Organizational responsibilities -The
accomplishment of maintenance may be the
responsibility of the customer, the producer (or
supplier), a third party, or a combination thereof
Decision making under risk and uncertainty.
4. Maintenance support elements
5. Effectiveness requirements
6. Environment - This includes the impact of external
factors such as temperature, shock and vibration,
humidity, noise, arctic versus tropical applications,
operating in mountainous versus flat terrain country,
shipboard versus ground conditions Categories of
System Test and Evaluation
Technical Performance Measures
Technical performance measures (TPMs) are quantitative
values (estimated, predicted, and/or measured) that describe
system performance. TPMs are measures of the attributes
and/or characteristics that are inherent within the design.
Quality Function Deployment
Quality Function Deployment
- A useful tool that can be applied to aid in the establishment
and prioritization of TPMs is the quality function deployment
(QFD) model. QFD constitutes a team approach to help ensure
that the “voice of the customer” is reflected in the ultimate
design.
Functional Analysis and Allocation
Function - refers to a specific or discrete action (or series of
actions) that is necessary to achieve a given objective.
Functional allocation - functional breakdown of the system
into components.
Functional analysis - an iterative process of translating
system requirements into detailed design criteria and the
subsequent identification of the resources required for system
operation and support.
System Trade Off Analyses
- Trade-off analysis involves synthesis. Synthesis refers to the
combining and structuring of components to create a feasible
system configuration. Synthesis is design. Initially, synthesis
is used in the development of preliminary concepts and to
establish relationships among various components of the
system.
Chapter 4: Preliminary System Design
Preliminary system design - this phase of the life cycle
progresses by addressing the definition and development of
the preferred system concept and the allocated requirements
for subsystems and the major elements thereof.
Technical Requirements
- The technical requirements for the system and its elements
are documented through a series of specifications
1. System specification (Type A): includes the technical,
performance, operational, and support characteristics for the
system as an entity;
2. Development specification (Type B): includes the
technical requirements (qualitative and quantitative) for any
new item below the system level where research, design, and
development are needed.
3. Product specification (Type C): includes the technical
requirements (qualitative and quantitative) for any item below
the system level that is currently in inventory and can be
procured “off the shelf.”
4. Process specification (Type D): includes the technical
requirements (qualitative and
quantitative) associated with a process and/or a service
performed on any element of a
system or in the accomplishment of some functional
requirement.
5. Material specification (Type E): includes the technical
requirements that pertain to raw materials (e.g., metals, ore,
and sand), liquids (e.g., paints and chemical compounds),
semi-fabricated materials (e.g., electrical cable and piping),
and so on.
Preliminary Design Criteria/ system design considerations
Considerations in System Design
1. Design for functional capability—Functional
capability derives from the characteristics of design
that relate to the technical performance of the system;
that is, the technical characteristics that are required
for the system to accomplish its intended mission(s)
2. Design for interoperability—Interoperability
pertains to the ability of the system to operate
successfully in an environment where there are many
other operating systems already in existence.
3. Design for sustainability—Sustainability, as defined
herein, applies to the sustaining operation and support
of systems throughout their respective life cycles
without causing any degradation to the environment
or to the earth’s natural resources.
4. Design for reliability—Reliability is that
characteristic of design and installation concerned
with the successful operation of the system
throughout its planned mission and for the duration of
its life cycle.
5. Design for maintainability—Maintainability is that
characteristic of design and installation that reflects
the ease, accuracy, safety, and economy of
performing maintenance actions.
6. Design for usability and safety—Usability is that
characteristic of design concerned with the interfaces
between the human and hardware, the human and
software, the human and facilities, the human and
information/data, and so on; that is, ensuring the
compatibility between, and safety of, system physical
and functional design features and the human element
in the operation, maintenance, and support of the
system.
7. Design for security—Security, in this instance,
pertains to those characteristics of design that will
prevent (or at least deter) one or more individuals
from intentionally inducing faults that will destroy
the system, cause harm to personnel, and/or have an
impact that will endanger society and the associated
environment.
8. Design for supportability and serviceability—
Supportability and serviceability refer to the
characteristics of design that ensure that the system
can ultimately be serviced and supported effectively
and efficiently throughout its planned life cycle.
9. Design for producibility and disposability—
Producibility is that characteristic of design that
pertains to the ease and economy with The design
evaluation process may be further facilitated through
the use of various analytical models, methods, and
tools in support of the Macro-CAD objective which a
system or product can be produced.
10. Design for affordability—Economic feasibility (or
affordability) refers to the characteristics of design
and installation that impact total system cost and
overall budgetary constraints.
11.
Engineering Design Tools and Technologies
6.1 Application of Computer-Aided Tools
- It is used to generate drawings and three-
dimensional graphic displays to facilitate the
accomplishment of many different analyses, to
generate materials and parts lists, and to support
many additional design-related functions, both of an
administrative and of a technical nature.
6.2 Analytical Models and Modeling
- The design evaluation process may be further
facilitated through the use of various analytical
models, methods, and tools in support of the Macro-
CAD objective.
Chapter 5: Detail Design and Development
Detail design and development - phase of the system life
cycle is a continuation of the
iterative development process.
Top-down/bottom-up approach - is guided by the steps in
the “vee” process model.
Design Data, Information and Integration
These include a combination of the following:
1. Design drawings—assembly drawings, control
drawings, logic diagrams, structural layouts, installation
drawings, schematics, and so on.
2. Material and part lists—part lists, material lists,
long-lead-item lists, bulk-item lists, provisioning lists, and so
on.
3. Analyses and reports—trade-off study reports
supporting design decisions, reliability and maintainability
analyses and predictions, human factors analyse, safety
reports, supportability analyses, configuration identification
reports, computer documentation, installation and assembly
procedures, and so on.
1. Arrangement drawing — shows in any projection
or perspective, with or without controlling dimensions, the
relationship of major units of the item covered.
2. Assembly drawing —depicts the assembled
relationship of (a) two or more parts, (b) a combination of
parts and subassemblies, or (c) a group of assemblies required
to form the next higher indenture level of the equipment.
3. Connection diagram—shows the electrical
connections of an installation or of its component devices or
parts.
4. Construction drawing—delineates the design of
buildings, structures, or related construction (including
architectural and civil engineering operations).
5. Control drawing—an engineering drawing that
discloses configuration and configuration limitations,
performance and test requirements, weight and space
limitations, access clearances, pipe and cable attachments,
support requirements, etc., to the extent necessary that an item
can be developed or procured on the commercial market to
meet the stated requirements. Control drawings are identified
as envelope control.
6. Detail drawing—depicts complete end item
requirements for the part(s) delineated on the drawing.
7. Elevation drawing—depicts vertical projections of
buildings and structures or profiles of equipment.
8. Engineering drawing—an engineering document
that discloses by means of pictorial or textual presentations, or
a combination of both, the physical and functional end product
requirements of an item.
9. Installation drawing—shows general configuration
and complete information necessary to install an item relative
to its supporting structure or to associated items.
10. Logic diagram—shows by means of graphic
symbols the sequence and function of logic circuitry.
11. Numerical control drawing—depicts complete
physical and functional engineering and product requirements
of an item to facilitate production by tape control means.
12. Piping diagram—depicts the interconnection of
components by piping, tubing, or hose, and when desired, the
sequential flow of hydraulic fluids or pneumatic air in the
system.
13. Running (wire) list—a book-form drawing
consisting of tabular data and instructions required to establish
wiring connections within or between items.
14. Schematic diagram—shows, by means of graphical
symbols, the electrical connections and functions of a specific
circuit arrangement.
15. Software diagrams—functional flow diagrams,
process flows, and coding drawings.
16. Wiring and cable harness drawing—shows the
path of a group of wires laced together in a specified
configuration, so formed to simplify installation.
Design Tools and Aids
DESIGN TOOLS AND AIDS
- The successful completion of the design process depends on
the availability of the appropriate- ate tools and design aids
that will help the design team in accomplishing its objectives
in an effective and efficient manner.
DESIGN REVIEW, EVALUATION, AND FEEDBACK
Conceptual Design Review is usually scheduled toward the
end of the conceptual
design phase and prior to entering the preliminary system
design phase of the program.
System design reviews are generally scheduled during the
preliminary system design phase when functional
requirements and allocations are defined, preliminary design
layouts and detailed specifications are prepared, system-level
trade-off studies are conducted, and so on
Equipment/software design reviews are scheduled during the
detail design and
development phase.
Critical Design Review is generally scheduled after the
completion of detailed design,
but prior to the release of firm design data for production
and/or construction. Design is essentially “fixed” at this point.
Design review and evaluation activity is continuous and
includes both
(1) informal ongoing iterative day-to-day process of review
and evaluation, and
(2) the scheduling of formal design reviews at discrete points
in design and throughout system acquisition.
A prototype model represents the production/construction
configuration of a system (and its elements) in all aspects of
form, fit, and function except that it has not been fully
“qualified” in terms of operational and environmental testing
Physical three-dimensional scale models or Mock ups -are
sometimes constructed to provide a realistic simulation of a
proposed system configuration.
Rapid prototyping - is a practice that is often implemented
and is inherent within the systems engineering process,
particularly in the development of large software-intensive
systems.
Chapter 6: System Test, Evaluation, and Validation
System test, evaluation, and validation activities - should be
established during the conceptual design phase of the life
cycle, concurrently with the definition of the overall system
design requirements.
Categories of System Test and Evaluation
2.1 Analytical and Simulation Evaluation
- The utilization of analytical models, CAD methods, and
various combinations of these can be effective in the
verification of certain design relationships before the design is
finalized .
2.2 Type 1 Testing
- During the initial phases of detail design, breadboards,
bench-test models, engineering models, engineering software,
and service test models are built and applied with the intent of
verifying certain physical design, performance, and
operational characteristics.
2.3 Type 2 Testing
-Formal tests and demonstrations are accomplished during the
latter part of detail design when preproduction prototype
equipment, software, formal procedures, and the like are
available.
1.Performance tests––Tests are accomplished to verify
individual system performance characteristics.
2.Environmental qualification––Temperature cycling, shock
and vibration, humidity, wind, salt spray, dust and sand,
fungus, acoustic noise, pollution emission, explosion proofing,
and electromagnetic interference tests are conducted. These
factors are oriented to what the various system elements will
be subjected to during operation, maintenance, and
transportation and handling functions. In addition, the effects
of the item(s) being tested on the overall external environment
will be noted.
3.Structural tests––Tests are conducted to determine material
characteristics relative to stress, strain, fatigue, bending,
torsion, and general decomposition.
4.Reliability qualification––Tests are accomplished on one
or more system elements to determine the MTBF and MTBM.
Also, special tests are often designed to measure component
life to evaluate degradation and to determine modes of failure.
5.Maintainability demonstration––Tests are conducted on
one or more system elements to assess the values for mean
active maintenance time mean corrective maintenance time
mean preventive maintenance time maintenance labor-hours
per operating hour (MLH/OH), and so on.
6.Support equipment compatibility tests––Tests are often
accomplished to verify compatibility among the prime
equipment, test and support equipment, and transportation and
handling equipment.
7.Personnel test and evaluation––Tests are often
accomplished to verify the relationships between people and
equipment, people and software, the personnel quantities and
skill levels required, and training needs. Both operator and
maintenance tasks are evaluated.
8.Technical data verification––Verification of operational
and maintenance procedures is often accomplished.
9.Software verification––Verification of operational and
maintenance software is accomplished. This includes
computer software units (CSUs), computer software
configuration items (CSCIs), hardware–software
compatibility, software reliability and maintainability , and
related testing.
10.Supply chain element compatibility tests––The
verification (in terms of adequacy) of the various elements of
the proposed supply chain with the applicable elements of the
system is accomplished. This includes component packaging
and handling methods, transportation and distribution modes,
warehousing and storage methods, and procurement
approaches.
11. Compatibility tests with other elements within the
higher-level SOS structure (as applicable) –– Selected tests
of a special and unique nature may be required at the
subsystem (and below) level to ensure the compatibility
between specific elements of the newly designed system and
external elements of other “interfacing” systems within the
same SOS structure. The objective is to identify, as early as
possible, areas where incompatibilities may exist and where
additional design activity may be required.
2.4 Type 3 Testing - Formal tests and demonstrations may be
conducted following the initial system qualification testing
and prior to completion of the production/construction phase.
2.5 Type 4 Testing - During the system operational utilization
and support phase, formal tests are sometimes conducted to
gain further insight into a specific area.
The systems engineering process model that best makes this
objective visible is the
“vee” model
Test and evaluation - concept to detailed design activities and
then extended through the production/construction and the
system utilization and support phases.
Validation - refers to the steps and the process needed to
ensure that the system configuration, as designed, meets all
requirements initially specified by the customer alternatives
throughout the life cycle.
Chapter 7: Alternatives and Models in Decision Making
Alternatives in decision making
1.1 LIMITING AND STRATEGIC FACTORS
- Those factors that stand in the way of attaining objectives are
known as limiting factors.
1.2 COMPARING ALTERNATIVES EQUIVALENTLY
- To compare alternatives equivalently, it is important that
they can be converted to a common measure.
Models in decision making
A model may be used as a representation of a system to be
brought into being, or to analyze a system already in being.
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS
Physical Models - Physical models are geometric equivalents,
either miniatures, enlargements or duplicates made to the same
scale.
Analogue Models - Analog comes from the Greek word
analogia, which means proportion. This explains the concept
of analogue model; the focus is on similarity in relations.
Analogues are usually meaningless from the visual standpoint.
Schematic Models - A schematic model is developed by
reducing a state or event to a chart or diagram.
Mathematical Models - A mathematical model employs the
language of mathematics and like other models, may be a
description and then an explanation of the system it represents.
2.2 MODELS AND INDIRECT EXPERIMENTATION
Direct and Indirect Experimentation
Direct experimentation - the object, state or event, and/or the
environment are subject to manipulation, and the results are
observed.
Indirect Experimentation
- The primary use of simulation in systems engineering is to
explore effects of alternative system characteristics on system
performance without actually producing and testing each
candidate system.
Decision involving multiple criteria
4.1 Multiple Criteria Considerations
Choice is not easy when multiple criteria are present, and this
difficulty is perpetuated if a decision maker sidesteps basic
concepts and simple guidelines.
(1) Selecting the Criteria to be Considered.
(2) Differences Are the Basis for Decision
4.2 Direct Ranking Methods
- A procedure that may make the task of ranking easier and
more effective is called the method of paired comparison.
Systematic elimination - methods are among the simplest
approaches available for choosing from among alternatives in
the face of multiple criteria.
Decision making under risk and uncertainty
6.1 The Decision Evaluation Matrix
- A decision evaluation matrix is a formal way of exhibiting
the interaction of a finite set of alternatives and a finite set of a
possible futures.
6.2 Decisions under Assumed certainty
- The evaluation matrix for decision making under assumed
certainty is not a matrix at all.
6.3 Decision making under risk
- Decision making under risk occurs when the decision maker
does not suppress acknowledged ignorance about the future
but makes it explicit through assignment of probabilities.
 Aspiration Level Criterion
An aspiration level is some desired level of
achievement such as profit, or some undesirable
result level to be avoided such as loss.
 Most Probable Future Criterion
A basic human tendency is to focus on the most
probable outcome from among several that could
occur. This approach suggests that all except the most
probable future be disregarded.
 Expected Value Criterion
This criterion is viewed with caution only when
payoff consequences of possible outcomes are
 disproportionately large, making results deviates
from the expected outcome a distinct possibility.

6.4 Decision making under risk uncertainty

- It may be inappropriate or impossible to assign probabilities
to the several futures identified for a given decision situation.
 Laplace Criterion
This is called the Laplace principle, or the principle
of insufficient reason based on the philosophy that
nature is assumed to be indifferent.
 Maximin and Maximax Criteria
Two simple decision rules are available for dealing
with decisions under uncertainty.

Maximin rule, based on an extremely pessimistic view of the

outcome of nature. - worst
Maximax rule, based on an extremely optimistic view of the
future. - best

6.5 Hurwicz criterion

- A third approach to decision making under uncertainty
involves an index of relative optimism and pessimism. It is
called the Hurwicz rule.

Valuation – How much they will lend you by the lending

company.
Payout Evaluation (in years)
Return on investment (in years)
Rate of return (%) - is a universal measure of economic
success because the returns from different classes of
opportunities are usually well established and generally
known.

Economic evaluation - technique is useful in relating fixed

and variable costs to the number of hours of operation, the
number of units produced, or other measures of operational
Chapter 8 Models for Economic Evaluation activity.

- the suggested means for Break-even point - is of primary interest in that it identifies
bringing technical or engineered systems into being. the range of the decision variable within which the most
desirable economic outcome may occur. (Profit – tax)

Interest rate (%)- is the ratio of the borrowed money to the fee
charged for its use over
a period, usually a year. Chapter 9 Optimization
Compound interest - interest earned at the end of the interest
period is either paid at that time or earns interest upon itself. Optimization is the process of seeking the best. In systems
engineering and analysis, this process is applied to each
alternative in accordance with decision evaluation theory.