Line Arrays for Live Sound

Stephen Bunting

Line array systems are now the forerunner in large scale live sound
reinforcement. This report describes why they have become so accepted and
widely-used over the last two decades, explores different arrangements of
arrays and why these are necessary, the benefits they have over more
traditional horizontally clustered systems in both directionality and high
frequency throw and how these are achieved. It also illustrates practical
advantages, disadvantages, cabinet design and techniques for setup,
configuration and touring.

1 Background
In the 60s and 70s, sound reinforcement systems used in popular music concerts were
often not sufficient to compete with the high levels of cheering, clapping and screaming from
the audience. It was necessary to begin using an increasing number of speaker cabinets to
provide the sound pressure level required, which were usually horizontally arrayed in clusters
with a ‘point and shoot’ philosophy and stacked on the side of stage [Webb 2003, 1]. There
were some inherent difficulties with this system.

• There was often an irregular frequency response due to destructive interference from
the closely stacked cabinets; also added to by the lack of HF coupling and the relative
abundance of LF coupling.
• Systems were generally short throw, again due to the lack of HF coupling, requiring
the use of delay stacks at regular intervals.

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Stephen Bunting
 • Significant floor or stage space was required to stack such a large number of
physically large cabinets.

These systems started to be superseded by line array systems in the 80s and 90s. These
feature a vertical arrangement of specially designed loudspeakers that produce a highly
directional sound beam in the vertical plane. They were developed from earlier designs, also
known as column loudspeakers, which comprise a tall cabinet with a number of equally
spaced, identical drivers, and were historically installed in reverberant environments, such as
churches or railway stations to aid vocal clarity for announcements.
Among the advantages of line arrays are their increased directivity in the vertical plane
allowing HF to be projected further, a more consistent frequency response, improved direct to
reverberant ratio and the convenience of a modular package that can easily be flown above
the stage [Webb 2003, 1-2] [Klepper 1963, 198].

2 The importance of distance

It is important when considering line arrays to define the difference between near field
and far field, as this characteristic provides the extended HF throw [Webb 2003, 2]. The far
field is identified by a sound pressure level which decreases at 6dB for every doubling of
distance. In the near field the sound pressure level undulates and decreases nominally at 3dB
per doubling of distance [Ureda 2001, 6].
This is an oversimplification however. It has been suggested in the past that the array
creates a cylindrical wave front in the near field, providing the 3dB drop off per doubling of
distance, and transforms to a spherical one at some point. However, it is more accurate to
consider the near field as an interference field. A point on the line array outputs a signal
which will not be in phase with another point on the line, creating destructive interference.
This is more prominent at high frequencies because they create more interference than low
frequencies, due to the shorter wavelengths. When the far-field boundary is crossed, the
interference has diminished enough for the SPL to decay as normal [Button 2002, 2].
There are many different opinions of when the far field starts. One source states: “The far
field typically begins at a distance about 8 or 10 times the longest dimension of the array, and
the critical distance (the transition point from near field to far field) is frequency dependant”
[Eargle 2000, 3]. Mark Ureda however shows it slightly more mathematically, stating “The
transition point can be estimated if we set as a criterion that the far field is reached when the

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Stephen Bunting
distance to P from the center [sic] point of a line array is within a quarter-wavelength of the
distance to P from the endpoint of the array” [Ureda 2001, 6].
This can be shown geometrically in Figure 1 and mathematically as such:
λ
r = r '− (Eq 2.1)
4
where r = distance to far point from line centre
r’ = distance to far point from line end

Figure 1 - The far field starts when r '−r ≤ λ

4 [Ureda 2001, 6]

To solve this gives:

2
⎛l⎞
r ' = ⎜ ⎟ + r 2 (Eq 2.2)
⎝2⎠
For the distance to the far field r, we combine and rewrite this equation as such:
l2 λ λ
r= − where l ≥ (Eq 2.3)
2λ 8 2
This can be converted to a more useful equation using frequency quite simply:
l 2 f 82 166
r= − where f ≥ (Eq 2.4)
664 2 f l
The λ8 or 282f term can be dismissed in cases where λ ≤ 2l as it becomes insignificant [Ureda

2001, 6-7].
Plotting this equation for various values of l (figure 2), shows that the distance to the far
field increases with increasing frequency (as stated by Eargle), and also with the length of
array. To take an example, for a 4m line array, we get transitions to far field at about 2m at
100Hz, 24m at 1kHz and 242m at 10kHz, while these are more like 10m at 100Hz, 100m at
1kHz and 1000m at 10kHz for an 8m long line.

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Stephen Bunting
Figure 2 – Distances to far field for lengths of line array 1m, 2m , 4m and 8m

The transition point has also been estimated by a similar procedure, but stating the
difference between r and r’ should be within a half-wavelength instead of a quarter-
wavelength [Kinsler 1982, 187-188].
There are a number of ways of estimating where the far field may start, but the most
important thing is to consider that it’s frequency dependant.

3 Directivity
Increased directivity in the vertical plane is a great advantage of line arrays, and is
covered by Mark Ureda in great detail in several AES publications, as well as in well-
documented and referenced acoustics theory from 70 years ago.

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Stephen Bunting
3.1 Problems with multiple point source systems
A horizontally arrayed loudspeaker cluster could be considered as a linearly arranged
combination of point sources. Wolff and Malter show that the equation for calculating the
polar pattern in the far field is:
sin nπλd sin α
Rα = (Eq 3.1)
n sin( nπλd sin α )
where n = number of sources
d = distance between sources
α = the angle the line from the source to the distant point makes with the normal to
the line joining the two sources [Wolff 1930, 201-241].

Plotting this for fixed n=2 and variable λd (figure 3) shows that there are severe lobes

produced when λd > 0.5 . Note that these lobes are of equal level to the on-axis lobe, and

for λd ≥ 1 , are much wider [Olson 1947, 31-32].

Plotting the same variable for fixed n=5 (figure 4) shows the same effect, but more
pronounced.
d
λ = 0.25 d
λ = 0.5 d
λ = 0.75

d
λ =1 d
λ =2 d
λ =4

d
Figure 3 – Varying values of λ for 2 point sources arranged in a line.

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Stephen Bunting
 d
λ = 0.25 λ
d
= 0.5 d
λ = 0.75

d
λ =1 d
λ =2 d
λ =4

d
Figure 4 - Varying values of λ for 5 point sources arranged in a line.

3.2.1 Directivity of a uniform line array system

When the polar pattern of a loudspeaker or other sound source is considered, it is
understood that the calculations are based in the far field, so that the sound pressure decreases
linearly with distance [Beranek 1954, 100]. This must be taken into account when calculating
the directivity of a uniform line array, and it also makes the calculations much simpler.
To analyse the on-axis pressure response of a uniform array, which means it has equal
phase and amplitude at all points along the line, the physical arrangement can be shown in
Figure 5:

Figure 5 - A straight line source with length L, with the path r(x) from point x on the line array to the
observation point P(r) (not shown)

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Stephen Bunting
 The equation for calculating pressure is:
L
2
A( x)e − j ( kr ( x )+Φ ( x ))
P(r ) = ∫
−L r ( x)
dx (Eq. 3.2)
2

where P(r) = sound pressure at distant point

L = the length of the array
r(x) = the distance to the far point
A(x) = the amplitude function
Φ (x) = the phase function
k = the wave number

As stated, considering the observation point, where the pressure is P(r), to be a great
distance away compared to the length of the array simplifies the equation, because if we were
to move x to a different point along the line source, r(x) changes insignificantly. Therefore:
1 1 1 1
≈ L ≈ − L ≈ (Eq. 3.3)
r ( x) r ( 2 ) r ( 2 ) r
However, the difference in distances between r(x) at different points along the array is
significant compared to a wavelength, therefore it must be taken into consideration. Figure 6
shows x repositioned along L, and the extra bit of distance that needs accounting for.
r ( x ) = x sin α (Eq. 3.4)

Figure 6 - x sin α represents the extra distance to a distant point from 2 parallel lines

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Stephen Bunting
 Substituting equations 3.3 and 3.4 into equation 3.2, we get the far-field pressure at
angle α :
L
2
1
r −∫L
P(α ) = A( x)e − j ( kx sin α + Φ ( x )) dx (Eq. 3.5)
2

The directivity function R (α ) is defined as:

P(r )
R(α ) = (Eq. 3.6)
Pmax

Pmax , the maximum radiated pressure, occurs when all segments along the line radiate in
phase. This is given as:
L
2
1
r −∫L
Pmax = A( x)dx (Eq. 3.7)
2

Therefore:
L
2

∫ A( x)e
− j ( kx sin α + Φ ( x ))
dx
−L

R(α ) = 2
L
(Eq. 3.8)
2

∫ A( x)dx
−L
2

As we are considering a uniform array, we can set A(x) to 1 (as amplitude is equal and
unity) and Φ (x) to 0 (as phase is equal), and we get the following:
L
2

∫e
− jkx sin α
R (α ) = dx (Eq. 3.9)
−L
2

To solve the integral gives the most commonly used expression for directivity of a line
array:
sin( kl2 sin α )
R(α ) = (Eq. 3.10)
2 sin α
kl

Finally, to substitute in the equation for wave number ( k = 2π

λ ) gives:

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Stephen Bunting
 sin( πλl sin α )
R(α ) = (Eq. 3.11)
λ sin α
πl

l
λ = 0.25 l
λ = 0.5 l
λ = 0.75 l
λ =1

l
λ = 1.5 l
λ =2 l
λ =3 l
λ =5

l
Figure 7 - The relationship between λ and the directivity of a uniform line source. This table shows that if the

array stays a constant length, the directivity pattern narrows and creates side lobes at higher frequencies.

Plotting this equation for changing ratios of λl , as in figure 7, shows that as the length of
the array increases, a constant frequency will get more directional. Also, as the wavelength
decreases (i.e. the frequency increases) for a given array length, the beam-width gets tighter
[Ureda 2001, 2-3].
Note also that the secondary lobes are significantly reduced from that of a multiple point
source model, and are considerably lower level than the primary lobe. This occurs because an
infinite amount of points can never be completely in phase, other than directly on-axis. The
effect is lessened at lower frequencies. Nonetheless, this does not mean that the lobes are
small enough to be negligible [Wolff 1930, 210-211].
The increased directionality for high frequencies is one of the main benefits of line array
systems. However, for a straight line array, this size can become far too narrow to be of any
use, as there will be a very slight position where the frequency response is just right, which is
far too small to cover a reasonable size audience.

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Stephen Bunting
 Also, a straight line array would not be very useful in a multi-layer auditorium, as to
achieve a satisfactory frequency response at all positions in the venue, it would need to
extend from floor to ceiling in order to benefit the people sitting at the front as well as the
people sitting higher up. [Webb 2003: 1].

3.2.2 Straight line array lobes

To determine the -6dB point of a uniform array, we can take the general term of equation
3.11 and set it to 0.5:
sin u
= 0.5 (Eq. 3.12)
u
This can be solved to find u = 1.895 with a numerical method. Entering this into the
equation for u gives
πl
u= sin α (Eq. 3.13)
λ
Because we’re finding the angle between 2 -6dB points, and the pattern is symmetrical
about 0°:
θ −6 dB = 2α (Eq. 3.14)
Rearranging equations 3.13 and 3.14 gives the following:
0 .6 λ
θ −6 dB = 2 sin −1 (Eq. 3.15)
l
This is plotted in figure 8, and can be seen to have narrow quarter power angles at high λl

and large angles for low λl . This is unsurprising as we’ve already shown that the directivity
beam gets narrower as the frequency gets higher.
If we consider that sin u ≈ u for small angles, equation 3.15 can be simplified to:
1.2λ
θ −6 dB = (Eq. 3.16)
l
Using degrees instead of radians and frequency instead of wavelength provides the
following approximate equation:
24000
θ −6 dB = (Eg. 3.17)
fl

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Stephen Bunting
 l
Figure 8 – A graph of θ −6 dB against [Ureda 2001, 4]
λ

This can be plotted to show frequency against quarter power angle with different array
lengths. You can see from figure 9 that at 10kHz, the -6dB point is only around 1° wide for
up to 8m long arrays and gets smaller for longer arrays. This is a very small angle, and is
practically unusable except for very specific applications [Ureda 2001, 4].

Figure 9 – Directivity response of 1, 2, 4 and 8m long line arrays [Ureda 2001, 4]

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Stephen Bunting
3.3 Curved line arrays
The next step in enhancing the use of a line array is to curve it. This provides the small
secondary lobe benefits of a line array, while widening the main on-axis lobe to a more
practical beam-width.
The process for deriving an equation for a curved array is similar to that for a straight line
array, the main difference being able to compensate for the small change of distance caused
by moving the point x along the array. This becomes more complex, and the arrangement is
shown in figure 10.

Figure 10 – The physical arrangement of a curved source array [Ureda 2001, 3]

⎛σ ⎞ ⎛σ ⎞
rc (σ ) = 2 R sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ + α ⎟ (Eq. 3.18)
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
We can then state the far field pressure at angle α as:
θ
2

∫θ A(σ )e
− j ( krc (σ ) + Φ (σ ))
P(r ) = dσ (Eq. 3.19)
−
2

Again, the far field directivity follows as such:

θ
2

∫θ A(σ )e
− j ( krc (σ ) + Φ (σ ))
dσ
−

Rcurved (α ) = 2
θ
(Eq. 3.20)
2

∫ A(σ )dσ
−θ
2

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Stephen Bunting
 Assuming uniform amplitude and phase gives:
θ
2
1
∫θ e
− jkrc (σ )
Rcurved (α ) = dσ (Eq. 3.21)
θ −
2

This can not be simplified any more as the straight line source was. [Ureda 2001, 3-4]. It
also unfortunately doesn’t lend itself easily to graph plotting. However, I have included plots
from Mark Ureda’s paper ‘J’ and ‘Spiral’ Arrays in figure 11, which clearly show that the
beam-width has increased for high values of λd , while the secondary maxima are still low.

Figure 11 – The polar plots of a curved source array for varying values of λd [Ureda 2001, 3-4]

3.4 ‘J’ Arrays

The problem with curved arrays is that they are not very well suited to the average
auditorium. While the bottom half will be angled down to provide extra coverage at locations
close to the front of stage, the top half will be angled upwards at the ceiling. Also, as we saw
earlier, the problem with straight line arrays is that the beam is far too narrow at high
frequencies.
A solution to utilise the best features of both arrays is to use a ‘J’ array. This is made up
of a straight line portion and a curved portion, normally at the bottom. This provides a long

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Stephen Bunting
throw straight line component for people relatively far away, while the curve at the bottom
acts as an in-fill for the area underneath the array that would otherwise be neglected [Ureda
2001, 5].
Figure 12 shows a geometric representation of a J-array. To calculate the directivity, we
can sum the two components.

Figure 12 – Geometric representation of a ‘J’ array.

The straight line component is the same as before:

L
2
1
L −∫L
Rline (α ) = e − jkrL ( x ) dx (Eq. 3.22)
2

where:
rL ( x) = x sin α (Eq. 3.23)
The equation for the circular portion is also the same, but the limits of integration must be
changed as it is rotated. So we get:
θ
Rcurved (α ) = ∫ e − jkrc (σ ) dσ (Eq. 3.24)
0

where:
⎛σ ⎞ ⎛σ ⎞
rc (σ ) = 2 R sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ + α ⎟ (Eq. 3.25)
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠

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Stephen Bunting
 The directivity function of a J-array is then:
L
2 θ
1
R J (α ) = AL ∫ e − jkrL (α ) dx + AC R ∫ e − j ( krc (σ ) + rJ (σ )) dσ (Eq. 3.20)
AL L + AC Rθ −L 0
2

where AL = the amplitude-per-unit length of the straight segment

AC = the amplitude-per-unit length of the curved segment
[Ureda 2001, 4-5]

Again, this pattern does not lend itself easily to plotting, although if we compare the
pattern from a line, curved and J source of a 2 metre long array with a 60° curved source with
a radius of 1 metre (figure 13), the differences are quite clear. The J-Array has an asymmetric
plot, with a slightly narrower pattern than the curved source. Therefore, not only does a J-
array provide a more useful distribution pattern, it has a more practical directivity pattern.

Figure 13 – Response curves of a line source, curved source and J-array with line length 2m, curve of 60° and
radius of 1m [Ureda 2001, 4-5]

3.5 Spiral Arrays

Spiral arrays are the next development from J-arrays, and have a superior frequency
response due to their similar polar pattern at shifting frequencies, while still retain the long
throw and in-fill benefits that J-arrays provide.
The concept is that spiral arrays are curved all the way along the array, but the curve is
progressive. This means that the top of the array is almost straight with angles of 1° between
boxes, and increase at the bottom to 6° up to about 10°.

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Stephen Bunting
 A well designed spiral array could have an almost constant directivity pattern with
frequency, with some small lobes exhibited at low frequencies [Ureda 2001, 8-9].

4 Practical use of line arrays

4.1 Planning
While line arrays would appear to be a step up from earlier sound reinforcement systems,
there is one big problem with them, which is that you can’t just stack your cabinets, aim them
in the general direction and expect them to perform well. There will have to be some
planning done beforehand to determine how many cabinets are needed, how to array them,
where they will be hung from, where they will be pointed and angle of curvature. This is a
greater problem on tour where you are presented with a new venue each day, rather than a
single installation [Bailey 2003].
Fortunately, most companies provide software that will estimate the characteristics of
different systems (manufacturer specific), such as JBL’s line array calculator (LAC) designed
for their VerTec range. This software helps the sound designer build the optimum rig based
on input of venue dimensions, seating planes, number of cabinets and it will display the
expected response from this input [JBL VerTec 4889 Owner’s Manual, Chapter 9].
This could help with planning a tour, as based on venue information received beforehand,
you can work out exactly what you need to take to each venue, and work everything out
before you get there.

4.2 The effect of atmosphere

Air absorption can be a major problem in sound reinforcement systems designed for long
throw, especially outdoors where they are also subject to adverse weather conditions. The
effect is that there will be a significant HF loss; progressively more so the further back from
the system you listen from.
A simple but effective way of overcoming this is to take advantage of the straight and
curved regions in a J or spiral array and their different purposes. The output from the front-
of-house drive equipment is split into typically 3 parts with progressively more HF gain, with
the most HF fed to the top long throw portion and the least fed to the bottom in-fill curve.

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Stephen Bunting
The consequence is that people near the front don’t hear excessive HF gain, while the people
at the back will hear it as it’s meant to sound [Webb 2003, 7-8].

4.3 On-site deployment

After researching current line array systems on the market, it is evident that they are
designed for minimal effort on behalf of the riggers. They are arrayed on the floor on wheel
boards and hoisted by chain motors so don’t need to be lifted at any point requiring only 2 or
3 people for assembly. They are also light which is not only good for the riggers but also for
hanging a large number of boxes off of 1 or 2 rigging points and simple truck packing is
considered in the design [JBL VerTec 4889 Owner’s Manual, Chapter 11].

4.4 Cabinet design

Line array cabinets are built trapezoid shaped so that they can be hinged at the front for
curving. This prevents any gaps which would be unavoidable with rectangular boxes and
highly undesirable as it would ruin the approximation of a continuous line source. Taking the
JBL VerTec as an example, they have a maximum hinge of 10° (the trapezoids are 5° off
rectangular), providing enough angle for a typical J or spiral array.
The cabinets are generally 2 or 3 way and designed to be driven by multiple amplifiers
fed by an active crossover. For full bandwidth reproduction, it is often necessary to use large
sub-bass cabinets as well. However, due to the omni-directional nature of extreme LF, these
may be clustered on or beneath the stage out of sight and will provide a good performance
sonically.
One of the most important aspects of line array design is maintaining the line
characteristic and preventing each driver from becoming a separate point source. As it is
impossible to create a satisfactory full-range reproduction with 1 driver, 2 or 3 different types
are required, which must have different radiuses to reproduce the desired frequency range, for
example, the Renkus-Heinz STXLA/9 line array module features 12” woofers for low
frequencies, 6.5” cones for mid frequencies and 2.5” drivers for HF.
In order to preserve line characteristics at all frequency bands, the drivers must be
arranged in such a way that they create individual sub-lines. Therefore, a typical line array
loudspeaker module may have 2 LF drivers, horizontally spaced, 4 mid frequency drivers

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Stephen Bunting
arrayed 2 high and 2 across and 3 HF drivers mounted in a vertical line in the middle, as in
Figure 14.
In this configuration, when they are stacked, they create vertical lines of drivers as closely
spaced as possible to provide the most constructive summing and increased coupling. Also,
the closer all drivers are together, the better the output due to constructive summing [Webb
2003, 2].

Figure 14 – An example line array module with 2 LF drivers, 4 MF drivers and 3 HF drivers (example based on
JBL VerTec 4889).

5.1 Conclusion
The advantages of using high quality, carefully designed and implemented line array
systems over horizontal clusters and other types of speaker arrangement are many.
First of all, we can expect a higher perceived direct to reverberant ratio due to the
directional nature of the system. Of course, the reverberant level of the auditorium will still
be the same, but by directing as much sound energy as possible so as a member of the
audience will hear it before any reverb is desirable to achieve this effect. Preventing side
lobes which would direct sound towards the walls and create more reverberation also greatly
adds to this feature [Wolff 1930, 202-203].
Another consequence of the increased directionality is increased feedback rejection. With
correct microphone placement, which will usually be behind and to the side of the array, the
SPL radiated will be lower than with horizontally clustered sound reinforcement stacks
[Klepper 1963, 1].
Due to the increased HF throw of the system, the need for delay stacks is eliminated or
reduced (dependant on the venue). There is also a more even sound intensity over the entire
field, as the system doesn’t need to be worked exceptionally hard to get the level needed at
the back of the field. This is helpful for the front-of-house sound engineer who will get a
better impression of what’s happening in other areas of the venue.

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Stephen Bunting
 It’s my opinion that the line array is a superior method of sound reinforcement for large
scale reproduction, although they would be much less useful in a smaller venue where a short
throw solution would be much more practical. They require more planning and possibly
unavailable rigging points if a particular system is not floor-mountable.
While the line array system may be more complex than simpler ‘point and shoot’
systems, there are tools available for precise deployment, meaning an enhanced audio
experience and a rightful position as the leading force in sound reinforcement systems.

5.2 Further work

I would be interested to do some research on frequency response of line arrays, as it will
change over the field due to far field characteristics, although probably in a predictable
manner.
Also, most of the work I have done has been theoretical, and it would be interesting to see
how these theories hold out in practice, particularly the directivity patterns.

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Stephen Bunting
6 References
• Bailey, M., 2003: ‘Experiences with Line Arrays’, Proceedings of the Institute of
Acoustics, Vol. 25, Pt. 4.
• Beranek, Leo L., 1954: Acoustics [New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company]
• Button, Doug, 2002: ‘AES 113th Convention’, High Frequency Components for High
Output Articulated Line Arrays, Preprint 5684, (October).
• Eargle, John, Scheirman, David and Ureda, Mark, 2000: ‘JBL’s Vertical
Technology™: Achieving Optimum Line Array Performance Through Predictive
Analysis, Unique Acoustic Elements and a New Loudspeaker System’,
http://www.jblpro.com/vertec1/VERTEC White Paper.pdf, accessed 30/9/2004
• JBL: ‘VerTec 4889 Owner’s Manual’, http://www.jblpro.com/vertec1/techdoc.htm, ,
accessed 3/10/2004
• Klepper, David L., and Steele, Douglas W., 1963: ‘Constant Directional
Characteristics from a Line Source Array’, Journal of the Audio Engineering Society,
Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 198-202.
• Kinsler, Lawrence E., Frey, Austin R., Coppens, Alan B., and Sanders, James V.,
1982: Fundamentals of Acoustics: Third Edition (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.)
• Olsen, Harry F., 1947: Elements of Acoustical Engineering: Second Edition [New
York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.]
• Ureda, Mark, 2002: ‘AES 113th Convention’, Pressure Response of Line Sources,
Preprint 5649, (October).
• Ureda, Mark, 2001: ‘AES 111th Convention Paper’, “J” and “Spiral” Line Arrays,
Preprint 5485, (September).
• Ureda, Mark, 2001: ‘AES 110th Convention Paper’, Line Arrays: Theory and
Applications, Preprint 5304, (May).
• Webb, Bill, and Baird, Jason, 2003: ‘AES 18th UK Conference’, Advances in Line
Array Technology for Live Sound, Paper 10, (March).
• Wolff, Irving, and Malter, Louis, 1930: ‘Directional Radiation of Sound’, Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 201-241.

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