Solar Energy Environmental Characteristics

Solar Energy: Environmental
Characteristics
Heat transfer Modes
Conduction
Quantified by Fourier law of heat conduction Q= -kA(dT/dx) = (kA/L) ∆T
Thermal conductivity
Temperature potential & Conductive thermal resistance
Convection
Forced convection
Free Convection
Quantified by using Newton’s law of cooling Q= hA∆T
Convective heat transfer coefficient
Depends on thermo physical properties of the fluid
Depends on Velocity
Temperature potential & Convective resistance 1/hA
Thermal resistance network
Resistance in series and parallel
Radiation
Jul 31 2012
Solar radiation:
General Issues
All substances, solid bodies as well as liquids and gases
above the absolute zero temperature, emit energy in
the form of electromagnetic waves.
The radiation that is important to solar energy
applications is that emitted by the sun within the
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared regions.
Therefore, the radiation wavelength that is important
to solar energy applications is between 0.15 and 3.0
µm. The wavelengths in the visible region lie between
0.38 and 0.72 µm.
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is a form of energy emission and
transmission that depends entirely on the temperature
characteristics of the emissive surface.
There is no intervening carrier, as in the other modes
of heat transmission, i.e., conduction and convection.
Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic wave that
travels at the speed of light (C = 300,000 km/s in a
vacuum).
This speed is related to the wavelength (λ) and
frequency of the radiation as given by the equation:
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Equations of importance are
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Most solid bodies are opaque, so that τ=0 and ρ+α=1.
If a body absorbs all the impinging thermal radiation
such that τ = ρ = 0, and α=1 regardless of the spectral
character or directional preference of the incident
radiation, it is called a blackbody
A blackbody is not only a perfect absorber, it is also
characterized by an upper limit to the emission of
thermal radiation.
The energy emitted by a blackbody is a function of its
temperature and is not evenly distributed over all
wavelengths.
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
The rate of energy emission per unit area at a
particular wavelength is termed the monochromatic
emissive power.
Planck’s equation for blackbody radiation is the
functional relation for the monochromatic emissive
power of a blackbody in terms of temperature and
wavelength
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
The emissivity of a surface is not only a function of
surface temperature but depends also on wavelength
and direction.
To express the dependence on wavelength, the
monochromatic or spectral emissivity, is defined as
the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power, of a
real surface to the monochromatic emissive power, of
a blackbody, both at the same wavelength and
temperature
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
the radiant energy leaving the surface includes its
original emission and any reflected rays.
The rate of total radiant energy leaving a surface per
unit surface area is called the radiosity (J),
Given by
Solar radiation:
Thermal radiation
There are two idealized limiting cases of radiation
reflection:
Specular: if the reflected ray leaves at an angle with
the normal to the surface equal to the angle made by
the incident ray
Diffuse: if the incident ray is reflected uniformly in all
directions.
Real surfaces are neither perfectly specular nor
perfectly diffuse.
Rough industrial surfaces, however, are often
considered as diffuse reflectors in engineering
calculations.
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
A beam of radiation strikes
the surface of a transparent
plate at angle θ1, called the
incidence angle, as shown in
Figure
Part of the incident
radiation is reflected and the
remainder is refracted, or
bent, to angle θ2, called the
refraction angle, as it passes
through the interface.
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Angle θ1 is also equal to the
angle at which the beam is
specularly reflected from the
surface.
Angles θ1 and θ2 are not equal
when the density of the plane is
different from that of the
medium through which the
radiation travels.
Additionally, refraction causes
the transmitted beam to be
bent toward the perpendicular
to the surface of higherdensity
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
The two angles are related by the Snell’s
law:
where n1 and n2 are the refraction indices

and n is the ratio of refraction index for the
two media forming the interface.
The refraction index is the determining
factor for the reflection losses at the
interface.
A typical value of the refraction index is
1.000 for air, 1.526 for glass, and 1.33 for
water.
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Two simplified cases:

Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
The Short cut
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Solar radiation:
Transparent Plates
Incidence Transmissivity Reflectivity Absorptivity

angle
60 0.719 0.147 0 142
0 0.807 0.074 0 119
Solar radiation:
Radiant Exchange between surfaces
Two surfaces considered: If both surfaces are black
and absorb all incident radiation, the net radiation
exchange is given by
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Solar radiation:
Terms you will come across
Sun-earth angles
Declination
Hour angle
Lattitude
Longitude
Solar Azimuth angle
Surface Azimuth angle
Solar Altitude angle
Solar time, longitude correction, Equation of time
correction
Sunrise & sunset times, day length etc.
Jul 31 2012
Some more terms you will come
across
The Sun-Earth Relationship
The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter

with a diameter of 1.39 x 109m
The sun is about 1.5 x 108 km away from earth, so,
because thermal radiation travels with the speed of
light in a vacuum (300,000 km/s), after leaving the sun
solar energy reaches our planet in 8 min and 20 s.
As observed from the earth, the sun disk forms an angle of

32 min of a degree.
This is important in many applications, especially in
concentrator optics, where the sun cannot be considered as
a point source and even this small angle is significant in the
analysis of the optical behavior of the collector
The sun has an effective black-body temperature of 5760 K.

The temperature in the central region is much higher.
In effect, the sun is a continuous fusion reactor in which
hydrogen is turned into helium.
The sun’s total energy output is 3.8 x1020 MW, which is
equal to 63 MW/m2 of the sun’s surface.
This energy radiates outward in all directions.
The earth receives only a tiny fraction of the total radiation
emitted, equal to 1.7 x 1014 kW
However, even with this small fraction, it is estimated that
84 min of solar radiation falling on earth is equal to the
world energy demand for one year (about 900 EJ).
Knowledge of the sun’s path through the sky is

necessary to calculate
the solar radiation falling on a surface
the solar heat gain
the proper orientation of solar collectors
the placement of collectors to avoid shading
many more factors……
The objective of this chapter is to
describe the movements of the sun relative to the earth that
give to the sun its east-west trajectory across the sky
to calculate amount of solar energy received for a number of
fixed and tracking surfaces
Reckoning of time
In solar energy calculations, apparent solar time (AST) must

be used to express the time of day.
AST is based on the apparent angular motion of the sun
across the sky.
The time when the sun crosses the meridian of the observer
is the local solar noon.
It usually does not coincide with the 12:00 o’clock time of a
locality.
To convert the local standard time (LST) to apparent solar
time, two corrections are applied
the equation of time
longitude correction
Reckoning of time:
equation of time
Over the year, the average length of a day is 24 h
However, in actual sense, the length of a day varies
The variable day length is due to four factors listed in order
of decreasing importance :
The earth’s orbit around the sun is not a perfect circle but
elliptical, so the earth travels faster when it is nearer the sun than
when it is farther away.
The earth’s axis is tilted to the plane containing its orbit around
the sun.
The earth spins at an irregular rate around its axis of rotation.
The earth `wobbles´ on its axis.
so the apparent solar time varies slightly from the mean time
kept by a clock running at a uniform rate. The variation is
called the equation of time (ET)
Reckoning of time:
equation of time
The values of the equation of time as a function of the day of the
year (N) can be obtained approximately from the following
equations:
Reckoning of time:
Longitude Correction
Prior to about 1880, different cities (and even train stations) had their own
time standards
Since it is conventional to have 12:00 noon be approximately in the middle of
the day regardless of the longitude, a system of time zones has been
developed.
Time is now measured about standard time zone meridians (longitudes).
These meridians are located every 15 degrees from the Prime Meridian so
that local time changes in 1-hour increments from one standard time zone
meridian to the next.
The local meridian (longitude) may not perfectly match with that of standard
meridian (longitude)
Because of which Longitude correction is to be applied
Since the sun takes 4 min to transverse 1° of longitude, a longitude
correction term of 4 x (Standard longitude - Local longitude) should be either
added or subtracted to the standard clock time of the locality
Reckoning of time:
Daylight saving
To complicate matters further in trying to correlate clock time
with the movement of the sun, a concept known as daylight
savings time was initiated in the United States in the spring of
1918 to "save fuel and promote other economies in a country at
war”
According to this concept, the standard time is advanced by 1
hour, usually from 2:00 AM on the first Sunday in April until 2:00
AM on the last Sunday in October.
Although various attempts have been made to apply this concept
uniformly within the country, it is suggested that the designer
check locally to ascertain the commitment to this concept at any
specific solar site.
Reckoning of time:
Longitude Correction
The general equation for calculating the apparent solar time
(AST) is
If a location is east of Greenwich, the sign of Eq. (2.3) is minus,

and if it is west, the sign is plus
If a daylight saving time is used, this must be subtracted from the
local standard time.
The term DS depends on whether day-light saving time is in
operation (usually from end of March to end of October) or not.
This term is usually ignored from this equation and considered
only if the estimation is within the DS period.
Solar Angles: Introduction
The earth makes one rotation about its axis every 24 h and
completes a revolution about the sun in a period of approximately
365.25 day.
This revolution is not circular but follows an ellipse with the sun
at one of the foci, as shown in Figure 2.3.
On June 21 the sun is at its most northerly position with respect

to the earth. This is called the summer solstice and during this
day the daytime is at a maximum.
Six months later, on December 21, the winter solstice, the
reverse is true and the sun is at its most southerly position (see
Figure 2.4).
In the middle of the six-month range, on March 21 and September

21, the length of the day is equal to the length of the night. These
are called spring and fall equinoxes, respectively.
The summer and winter solstices are the opposite in the Southern
Hemisphere; that is, summer solstice is on December 21 and winter
solstice is on June 21.
It should be noted that all these dates are approximate and that
there are small variations (difference of a few days) from year to
year.
The ecliptic plane is the plane of orbit of the earth around the sun.
The earth axis of rotation (the polar axis) is always inclined at an
angle of 23.45° from the ecliptic axis, which is normal to the
ecliptic plane.
Solar Angles: Declination
angle , δ
The earth rotates around the sun as if the polar axis is moving with
respect to the sun.
The solar declination is the angular distance of the sun’s rays north
(or south) of the equator, north declination designated as positive.
angle , δ
As shown in Figure 2.5 it is the angle between the sun-earth center

line and the projection of this line on the equatorial plane.
Declinations north of the equator (summer in the Northern
Hemisphere) are positive, and those south are negative.
angle , δ
Figure 2.6 shows the declination during the equinoxes and the
solstices.
As can be seen, the declination ranges from 0° at the spring
equinox to +23.45° at the summer solstice, 0° at the fall equinox,
and -23.45° at the winter solstice.
angle , δ
The declination, δ, in degrees for any day of the year (N) can be
calculated approximately by the equation
angle , δ
Solar Angles: Hour Angle
The hour angle, h, of a point

on the earth’s surface is
defined as the angle through
which the earth would turn to
bring the meridian of the
point directly under the sun.
The hour angle of point P as
the angle measured on the
earth’s equatorial plane
between the projection of OP
and the projection of the
sun-earth center to center
line.
The hour angle at local solar

noon is zero, with each
360/24 or 15° of longitude
equivalent to 1 h, afternoon
hours being designated as
positive.
Expressed symbolically, the
hour angle in degrees is
The hour angle at local solar

noon is zero, with each
360/24 or 15° of longitude
equivalent to 1 h, afternoon
hours being designated as
positive.
Expressed symbolically, the
hour angle in degrees is
Solar Angles: Solar Altitude
Angle
Solar Angles: Solar Azimuth
Angle
Angle
Angle
Solar Angles: Sun rise, Sun
Set and Day length
Set and Day length
Set and Day length
Set and Day length
Solar Angles: Incidence angle
for moving surfaces
for moving surfaces
Tracking systems can be classified by the mode of their motion.

This can be about a single axis or about two axes (Figure 2.10a).
In the case of a single-axis mode, the motion can be in various
ways: east-west (Figure 2.10d), north-south (Figure 2.10c), or
parallel to the earth’s axis (Figure 2.10b).
for moving surfaces
The mode of tracking affects the amount of incident radiation

falling on the collector surface in proportion to the cosine of the
incidence angle.
Comparison: Refer Table 2.2
for moving surfaces
The performance of the various modes of tracking is compared to the

full tracking, which collects the maximum amount of solar energy,
shown as 100% in Table 2.2.
From this table it is obvious that the
polar and the N-S horizontal modes are the most suitable for one-
axis tracking, since their performance is very close to the full
tracking, provided that the low winter performance of the latter is
not a problem.
Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
Atmospheric attenuation
The solar heat reaching the earth’s surface is reduced below Gon
because a large part of it is scattered, reflected back out into
space, and absorbed by the atmosphere.
As a result of the atmospheric interaction with the solar radiation, a
portion of the originally collimated rays becomes scattered or non-
directional.
Some of this scattered radiation reaches the earth’s surface from
the entire sky vault. This is called the diffuse radiation.
The solar heat that comes directly through the atmosphere is
termed direct or beam radiation.
The insolation received by a surface on earth is the sum of diffuse
radiation and the normal component of beam radiation
The solar heat at any point on earth depends on
Terrestrial Irradiation
Radiation on tilted surfaces
Radiation on tilted surfaces:
Beam radiation
Beam radiation
Beam radiation
Beam radiation
Diffuse & reflected radiation
Total radiation
Total radiation, Other models
Total radiation, Other models
Insolation on tilted surfaces:
Empirical relations
Empirical relations
Empirical relations
Empirical relations
Empirical relations
Empirical relations
SR measuring Instruments:
Pyranometer
Measures global or diffuse

radiation on a horizontal surface
Covers total hemispherical solar
radiation with a view angle of
2π steradians
Consists of a black surface
which heats up when exposed to
solar radiation
Its temp rises until the rate of
heat again from solar radiation
equals heat loss by conduction,
convection, radiation
117
Pyranometer
Hot junction of thermo couple

on the black surface and cold
junction at a place where there
is no radiation
Electrical voltage (0 to 10mV)
generated due to temp
difference is calibrated for solar
radiation (Global)
Diffuse radiation is measured by
providing a shading ring or disc
to shade the direct sun rays
The shading ring’s plane is
parallel the plane of sun’s path
118
Pyrheliometer
Measures beam radiation on a
surface normal to the sun’s
rays.
The sensor is a thermo pile and
its disc is located at the base of
a tube whose axis is aligned in
the direction of sunrays
The instrument is mounted on a
motor driven heliostat which is
adjusted every week to cover
changes in sun’s declination
Readings give data for
atmospheric turbidity and
provide clearness index
119
Sunshine recorder
Measures bright sunshine hours in a
day
Consists of a glass sphere installed
in a section of spherical metal
bowl, having groves for holding a
recorder card strip
The glass sphere is adjusted to focus
sun rays to a point on the card
On a bright sunshine day, the
focused image burns a trace on the
card
As the sun moves through the day,
the burnt trace moves giving the
length of bright sunshine day
120
Solar radiation data for India:
some interesting aspects
India lies with in

latitudes of 7o N and
37oN.
Annual intensity of solar
radiation 400- 700
cal/cm2/day
Most part of India
receive 4- 7
kWh/m2/day with 250 –
300 sunny days/year
Global radiation map
121
Five regions with changing

solar radiation pattern
between Jan and December
Other countries having rich

solar flux belt are
Saudi Arabia
Central Australia
South Africa
122
Peak values: March

to May
Peak places
Western Rajasthan
Gujarat
(over
600cal/cm2/day
(25,100kJ/m2/day)
Monsoon and Winter

goes down to
400(16700)
123
Jul 31 2013

Solar Energy Environmental Characteristics

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Solar Energy: Environmental

where n1 and n2 are the refraction indices

Two simplified cases:

Incidence Transmissivity Reflectivity Absorptivity

The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter

As observed from the earth, the sun disk forms an angle of

The sun has an effective black-body temperature of 5760 K.

Knowledge of the sun’s path through the sky is

In solar energy calculations, apparent solar time (AST) must

If a location is east of Greenwich, the sign of Eq. (2.3) is minus,

On June 21 the sun is at its most northerly position with respect

In the middle of the six-month range, on March 21 and September

As shown in Figure 2.5 it is the angle between the sun-earth center

The hour angle, h, of a point

The hour angle at local solar

The hour angle at local solar

Tracking systems can be classified by the mode of their motion.

The mode of tracking affects the amount of incident radiation

The performance of the various modes of tracking is compared to the

Measures global or diffuse

Hot junction of thermo couple

India lies with in

Five regions with changing

Other countries having rich

Peak values: March

Monsoon and Winter

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