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Analog Electronics: Rahul. S. Mahendrakar
Analog Electronics: Rahul. S. Mahendrakar
Analog Electronics
Rahul. S. Mahendrakar
A
Study Material
Of
ANALOG ELECTRONICS
[20EC31P]
Prepared as per C-20 Curriculum W.e.f. 2021-22
For III semester E&CE students
Compiled By
Rahul. S. Mahendrakar
Lecturer
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
SANDUR POLYTECHNIC, YESHWANTNAGAR
Course Details
Rationale
Analog electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with a continuously variable signal. It is widely used in radio and audio
equipment along with other applications where signals are derived from analog sensors before being converted into digital signals for
subsequent storage and processing. Analog Electronics offers a very elegant design with many components and would effectively act
as an impetus to the digital world.
Course Outcomes/Skill Sets: On successful completion of the course, the students will be able to:
Identify the components in a given analog electronic circuit and list their characteristics and
CO-1
uses.
Study the given analog circuit and using the data sheets/specification sheets, list alternative electronic components for the
CO-2
given circuit.
Construct an analog electronic circuit for a given application and demonstrate the working of
CO-3
that circuit either in Real or Simulated environment.
Test a given circuit for a desired result/outcome, identify the problem and troubleshoot to obtain
CO-4
the desired result/outcome.
Sl. No. Assessment Test Week Duration in minutes Max Marks Conversion
1 CIE-1 Written Test 5 80 30
2 CIE-2 Written Test 9 80 30 Average of three tests 30
3 CIE-3 Written Test 13 80 30
4 CIE-4 Skill Test-Practice 6 180 100 Average of two skill tests
5 CIE-5 Skill Test-Practice 12 180 100 20
CIE-6 Portfolio continuous evaluation
6 1-13 10
of Activity through Rubrics
Total CIE Marks 60
Semester End Examination (Practice) 180 100 40
Total Marks 100
4 Transistor Amplifiers 18 - 22
5 RC Coupled Amplifiers 23 - 28
6 Power Amplifiers 29 - 31
8 Configuration of Op-Amps 39 - 47
Applications of Op-Amp & Basics of
9 48 - 56
Oscillators
10 Sinusoidal Oscillators 57 - 62
11 Active Filters 63 - 69
13 IC-555 Timer 74 - 79
Analog Electronics 20EC31P
Tabular Column:
Input Voltage Output Voltage
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the AC voltage at the secondary of the transformer and
note down in the tabular column.
3. Measure the DC voltage at the secondary of the transformer and
note down in the tabular column.
4. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Result:
Regulated power supply is constructed to output +5V and tested.
Expt. 7.3. UPS When the UPS is operating from utility power
(the Power LED is green), the Battery Charge
Aim: To study different front panel control of UPS. LED indicates the approximate charge state of
the batteries:
Components and Apparatus Required: • Red - The batteries are beginning to
charge.
Sl. Equipment/ • Amber - The batteries are midway
Specification Quantity through charging.
No. Component Name
• Green - The batteries are fully charged.
1 UPS - 01
When the UPS is operating on battery power
during a blackout or severe brownout (the Power
6 Battery Charge LED LED is flashing green), the Battery Charge LED
indicates the approximate amount of remaining
battery energy:
• Red - The batteries have a low level of
energy.
• Amber - The batteries have a medium
amount of energy.
• Green - The batteries have a high
Figure 1.7. Front panel controls of UPS amount of energy.
Course Content 2 ➢ Under certain conditions, the voltage drop across C will be very
small in comparison to the voltage drop across R. hence total
Wave Shaping Circuits input voltage Vi appears across R.
➢ Current through resistor R is given by
𝑉𝑖
𝑖𝑅 =
Lecture Tutorial Practice 𝑅
(Knowledge Criteria) (Activity Criteria) (Performance Criteria) The output voltage across the capacitor is given by
1
Design and build a 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑅 dt
circuit that can store the 1 𝑉
RC Integrator & RC maximum voltage of the = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑅𝑖 dt
Differentiator input signal (Peak 1
Detector) and
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 ∫ 𝑉𝑖 dt
Generate the following
Clippers demonstrate it in the
waveforms from the According to the above equation, the output voltage is
• Series class. proportional to the integral of the input signal.
sinusoidal waveform.
• Shunt • Trapezoidal ➢ The behavior of the circuit to the square wave is illustrated in
Prepare a report on any
• Biased • Positive cycle
one application of peak figure 2.2.
detector in daily life,
Clampers Construct and verify the
also compare the nature
• Positive voltage doubler and
of the output of a
• Negative rectifier and a peak
Tripler circuit to multiply
the input voltage.
detector.
Voltage multipliers
• Doubler Prepare a video of a
• Tripler circuit that increases the
input voltage 4 times.
(Quadruple)
Knowledge Criteria
Figure 2.2. Response of integrator circuit to square wave input
2.1. RC Integrator
➢ Figure 2.1. shows the circuit diagram of RC integrator in which
2.2. RC Differentiator
resistor R is connected in series with the input. ➢ Figure 2.3. shows the circuit diagram of RC differentiator in
which capacitor C is connected in series with the input.
➢ Under certain conditions, the voltage drop across the resistor R ➢ Positive Series Clipper
will be very small in comparison with the drop across C. Hence, ▪ Figure 2.5. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of
we may consider that the total input Vi appears across C, hence the positive series clipper.
the current is determined entirely by the capacitance.
➢ The current through capacitor is given by,
𝑑
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑡
The output voltage VO across R is given by,
𝑑
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑡
According to above equation, the output voltage is proportional
to the derivative of the input signal. Figure 2.5. Positive series clipper circuit and waveforms
➢ The behavior of the circuit to the square wave is illustrated in ▪ During the positive half cycle of the input, diode D is
the figure 2.4. reverse biased and the output is zero, the positive half
cycle is clipped-off.
▪ During the negative half cycle of the input, diode D is
forward biased and the output is the same as the input,
the negative half cycle appears at the output.
➢ Negative Series Clipper
▪ Figure 2.6. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of
the negative series clipper.
2.3.2. Shunt Clippers ▪ During the negative half cycle of the input signal, diode
➢ In this type of clippers, the output is taken across the diode. D becomes forward biased and the output voltage is zero
since it is taken across the diode.
➢ Positive Shunt Clipper
▪ Figure 2.7. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of the 2.3.3. Biased Clippers
positive shunt clipper. ➢ The clipping action can be varied by connecting reference
voltage in series with the diode, such clippers are called biased
clippers.
➢ Positive Bias Clipper
▪ Figure 2.9. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of
the positive bias clipper.
▪
The diode D is forward biased only when the input ➢ Figure 2.12. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of the
becomes more negative than (-V). The output voltage is positive clamper.
limited to -V.
▪ The diode D is reverse biased when input is positive and
output is the same as the input, a positive half cycle
appears at the output.
➢ Combinational Clipper
▪ Figure 2.11. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of
the combinational clipper.
Figure 2.12. positive clamper circuit and waveform
➢ When the input is negative, diode D is forward biased and the
capacitor charges to V with the polarity shown. The output
voltage is zero.
➢ When the input is positive, diode D is reverse biased and the
output voltage is the sum of the input voltage (+V) and the
capacitor voltage (+V).
VO=+V+V=+2V
Figure 2.11. Combinational clipper circuit and waveform 2.4.2. Negative Clamper
▪ When input becomes positive, diode D2 is reverse biased ➢ when the signal is pushed downward by the circuit and the
and Diode D1 becomes forward biased only when the positive peak of the signal coincides with the zero level, such
input becomes more positive than V1 and the output clampers are called as negative clamper.
voltage is limited to +V1. ➢ Figure 2.13. shows the circuit diagram and waveforms of the
▪ When input becomes negative, diode D1 is reverse biased negative clamper.
and Diode D2 becomes forward biased only when the
input becomes more negative than V2 and output voltage
is limited to -V2.
2.4. Clampers
➢ The clamper changes the DC level of the waveform but does not
affect its shape.
➢ It is also known as DC restorer.
➢ There are two types of clampers Figure 2.13. Negative clamper circuit and waveform
i. Positive Clamper ➢ When the input is positive, diode D is forward biased and the
ii. Negative Clamper capacitor charges to V with the polarity shown. The output
voltage is zero.
2.4.1. Positive Clamper
➢ When the input is negative, diode D is reverse biased and the
➢ when the signal is pushed upward by the circuit and the negative
output voltage is the sum of the input voltage (-V) and the
peak of the signal coincides with the zero level, such clampers
capacitor voltage (-V).
are called as positive clamper.
VO=-V-V=-2V
Department of E&CE Page 9 of 79 RAHUL S MAHENDRAKAR
Analog Electronics 20EC31P
Component Required:
Sl. Equipment/
Specification Quantity
No. Component Name
Figure 2.17. Trapezoidal waveform from sinusoidal waveform
1 Signal generator 0-1MHz 01
Circuit diagram to generate positive half cycle:
2 DC Regulated power supply 0-30V 01
3 Resistor 200Ω, 1KΩ 01
4 Junction diodes 1N4007 02
5 Single stand wires - As needed
Waveforms:
Figure 2.16. Circuit to generate trapezoidal waveform Figure 2.19. Positive half cycle from a sinusoidal input
Tabular Column:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Note down the AC input at the secondary winding of the
transformer.
3. Measure the DC output voltage.
4. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Result: Voltage multiplier circuits are constructed and tested.
Figure 3.1. Circuit symbol and Physical appearance of Tunnel diode ➢ Applications
➢ Features of Tunnel diode i Used in AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) circuits.
i The switching speed of the device is high. ii Used in Parametric amplifier.
ii Less noisy iii Used as tuning network in FM radio and TV receivers.
iii Low power dissipation iv Used in adjustable band pass filter.
iv Current conduction is due to majority charge carries.
v It has negative resistance.
Department of E&CE Page 14 of 79 RAHUL S MAHENDRAKAR
Analog Electronics 20EC31P
3.3. Gunn Diode ➢ The PIN diode under unbiased condition, offers high resistance.
➢ Gunn diode is two terminal high-frequency bulk semiconductor The resistance offered by the diode decreases as the forward
device, based on the Gunn effect. voltage increases, therefore it acts like a variable resistor under
➢ Figure 3.3. shows the symbol and physical appearance of the forward bias.
varactor diode. ➢ When PIN diode is reverse biased, it acts like constant capacitor.
➢ Applications
i Acts as switching device for frequencies upto GHz.
ii Used as an AM modulator of very high frequency
signals.
3.5. Solar Cell
Figure 3.3. Circuit symbol and Physical appearance of Gunn diode ➢ Solar cells are the source of energy which works on the principle
➢ Features of photo voltaic effect.
i It is made up of only N-type semiconductor, not P-type. ➢ Solar cells convert solar energy into electrical energy.
ii It exhibits negative resistance region. ➢ Figure 3.5. shows the circuit symbol of solar cells.
iii It has better noise immunity.
iv It has poor temperature stability.
v Its efficiency is low below 10 GHz.
➢ Applications
i Used as low and medium power oscillators in microwave Figure 3.5. Circuit symbol of solar cell
instruments and receiver circuits. ➢ Applications of solar cells
ii Used in CW radars. i Used in obtaining domestic power supply.
iii Used as sensor for detecting trespassers, to avoid ii Extensively used in water heaters.
derailment of trains. iii Used in solar based traffic control lights.
iv Used for remote vibration detectors and rotational speed iv Used to power the satellites.
measuring tachometers. 3.6. Schottky Diode
v Used in microwave transmitters to generate microwave ➢ It is a two terminal unipolar metal semiconductor junction diode.
radio waves at very low powers. It is also called as hot carrier diode or Schottky barrier, surface
3.4. PIN Diode barrier.
➢ The PIN diode contains three semiconductors namely, P region, ➢ The construction of this diode is quite different from the
N region and Intrinsic layer of pure silicon. ordinary diode that a metal semiconductor junction is created as
➢ The structure, circuit symbol and physical appearance of PIN shown in the figure 3.6.
diode is shown in figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4. Circuit symbol and Physical appearance of PIN diode Figure 3.6. Circuit symbol and Physical appearance of Schottky diode
➢ The Schottky diode has much lower forward voltage drop and Performance Criteria
reverse breakdown voltage, than ordinary PN junction diode.
The Schottky diode has a very little junction capacitance Testing & Application Circuit
because of this it can be operated at higher frequencies.
➢ Applications
i Used as switching device in computers. Experiment No. 3.1: Testing of UJT
ii Used in clipping and clamping circuits.
iii Used in mixers and detectors in communication circuits. Aim: To test the functionality of UJT.
iv Used in rectifiers at high frequencies.
3.5. Unipolar Junction Transistor Components and Apparatus Required:
➢ A unijunction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor Sl. Equipment/
Specification Quantity
device, it has Base1, Base2 and emitter terminals. No. Component Name
It has only one PN junction and hence it is called Uni Junction 1 UJT 2N2646 01
transistor. 2 Digital multimeter - 01
➢ The structure, circuit symbol and physical appearance of UJT is 3 Single stand wires - As needed
shown in figure 3.7.
Circuit diagram
(a) Forward biasing the emitter junction
(c) Measuring the resistance between base terminals Experiment No. 3.2: Schottky Application Circuit
Component Required:
Proteus 8.1 Circuit simulation software
Theory:
The voltage regulator is called a Buck converter or step down
voltage regulators. It is a type of DC-DC converter, so it accomplishes
the task using Schottky diode, transistor, switches and an inductor.
Figure 3.10. UJT testing circuit 3
Procedure: Circuit diagram
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the resistance.
3. Disconnect the connections safely.
Result: UJT is tested using digital multimeter.
Tabular Column
4.1. Introduction
➢ A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak
signal.
➢ The figure shows what a transistor looks like when connected as
an amplifier. Figure 4.2. Biasing
➢ The supply voltage VBB forward biases the emitter-base junction As we know, one of the most common applications of the BJT is to
and VCC reverse biases the collector-base junction. use it as an amplifier. where if we apply the time-varying signal as an
This forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the input then it amplifies the input signal. But this BJT won't amplify the
input signal. input signal until we apply the DC power supply. And in fact, the energy
➢ When no input signal is present, the dc collector current IC flows supplied by this DC supply is used to amplify the input signal. So, the
through collector resistor RC. This is called zero signal currents. process of applying this DC voltage source to the BJT is known as bias.
➢ To design a transistor-based amplifier, it is necessary to operate ➢ The operating point is a fixed point on the output characteristics
the transistor in the linear active region. This is done by using of the transistor, it is also referred to as the dc operating point,
external components such as resistors and capacitors and quiescent point, or Q-point.
applying dc voltages to the transistor to establish proper ➢ It is called an operating point because the variations of IC and
collector IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE. VCE take place at this point when the input signal is applied.
This process is referred to as biasing and the circuit used for 4.5. Stabilization and Stabilization Factor
transistor biasing is called transistor Biasing. ➢ For a transistor to be operated as a faithful amplifier, the
➢ The transistor will function properly if its input circuit (base- operating point should be stabilized.
emitter junction) is forward biased and the output circuit ➢ The main factor that affects the operating point is the
(Collector-base junction) is reverse biased. temperature. The operating point shifts are due to changes in
4.3. DC Load line temperature.
➢ The dc operation of a transistor circuit can be described ➢ As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE get
graphically using a DC load line. affected.
➢ This is a straight line drawn on the characteristic curves from the ICBO gets doubled (for every 100 rises)
cutoff point to saturation point as shown in figure 4.3. VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)
➢ So, the main problem which affects the operating point is
temperature. Hence operating point should be made independent
of the temperature to achieve stability.
4.5.1. Stabilization
➢ The process of making the operating point independent of
temperature changes or variations in transistor parameters is
known as Stabilization.
➢ Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE
become independent of temperature variations or the
replacement of the transistor.
A good biasing circuit helps in the stabilization of the operating
Figure 4.3. DC load line point.
At the cutoff point, the values of base current and collector ➢ Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the
current are ideally zero and VCE=VCC on the x-axis. following reasons.
At the saturation point, the collector current is maximum and i Temperature dependence of IC
collector-to-emitter voltage is ideally equal to zero and IC=IC(Sat) ii Individual variations
on the y-axis. iii Thermal runaway
The load line is determined by VCC and RC. 4.5.2 Stabilization Factor
4.4. Operating Point ➢ The extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in maintaining
➢ The dc collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE IC constant despite variations in ICBO is measured by the Stability
when no input signal is applied are collectively referred to as factor. It is denoted by S.
Operating point.
➢ By definition, the rate of change of collector current IC for the The emitter resistor RE provides stabilization.
collector leakage current ICO at constant β and IB is called the ➢ A basic assumption is that the resistance looking into the base is
Stability factor. much larger than that of the resistor R2. The current through
𝑑𝐼 resistor R1 flows almost completely into resistor R2 and two
𝑆 = 𝑑𝐼 𝐶 at constant IB and β
𝐶𝑂 resistors may be considered effective in series.
Hence, we can understand that any change in collector leakage ➢ Circuit Analysis
current changes the collector current to a great extent. The The base voltage is given by,
stability factor should be as low as possible so that the collector 𝑅2
current doesn’t get affected. S=1 is the ideal value. 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐶𝐶
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
4.6. Voltage Divider Biasing for BJT Emitter voltage is given by,
➢ The current gain β is temperature-sensitive, especially for silicon VE=VB-VBE
transistors. So, it is desirable to provide a dc bias circuit in which Collector current and emitter current are given by,
the dc bias current and voltage of the collector are independent 𝑉
IC≈IE=𝑅𝐸
of β. 𝐸
➢ The voltage divider bias circuits are so popularly used and it is Collector voltage is given by,
also called a self-bias circuit or universal bias circuit. VC=VCC-ICRC
Collector-emitter voltage is given by
VCE=VC-VE
4.7. Classification of Amplifiers
Amplifiers are classified in many ways few of them are listed below.
➢ By use
i. Voltage amplifiers
ii. Current amplifiers
iii. Power amplifiers
➢ By frequency range
i. DC amplifiers
ii. Audio amplifiers
iii. Video amplifiers
iv. RF amplifiers
v. UF amplifiers
➢ By coupling methods
i. Direct-coupled amplifiers
ii. RC coupled amplifiers
iii. Transformer coupled amplifiers
Figure 4.4. Voltage divider circuit ➢ By mode of operations
➢ The name voltage divider is derived from the fact that resistors i. Class A amplifiers
R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across the VCC supply. ii. Class B amplifiers
The voltage drop across resistor R2 forward biases the emitter- iii. Class AB amplifiers
base junction of the transistor. iv. Class C amplifiers
Theory:
The use of transistors for the construction of logic gates depends
upon their utility as fast switches. When the base-emitter diode is turned
on enough to be driven into saturation, the collector voltage concerning
the emitter may be near zero and can be used to construct gates for the
TTL logic family.
For the AND logic, the transistors are in series and both
transistors must be conducted to drive the output high.
For the OR logic, the transistors are in parallel and the output is
driven high if either of the transistors is conducting.
Course Content 5 ➢ The resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider bias circuit.
➢ The resistor RE provides bias stabilization.
RC Coupled Amplifier ➢ An emitter bypass capacitor CE is used in parallel with RE to
provide a low reactance path to the AC signal.
➢ Capacitor C1 is used to couple the input signal vi to the base of
Lecture Tutorial Practice
Q1 while the resistor RC and capacitor CC are used to couple the
(Knowledge Criteria) (Activity Criteria) (Performance output to the next stage of the amplifier.
Criteria) ➢ When an ac signal is applied to the input of the first stage, it is
Common Emitter RC amplified by a transistor and appears across the collector resistor
Coupled transistor Prepare a report on Construct voltage RC.
amplifier frequency applications of each type of divider biased single
response. amplifier and present it. stage RC coupled 5.2. Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier
amplifier ➢ The figure shows the frequency of the RC coupled amplifier.
Power amplifiers- Demonstrate any one real
classification, principle life application of an Simulate RC coupled
& performance criteria amplifier amplifier using FET.
of power amplifiers.
Knowledge Criteria
5.1. Common Emitter RC Coupled Amplifier
➢ The figure shows a circuit diagram of a common emitter RC
coupled transistor amplifier.
➢ It is from the graph that the voltage rolls off at frequencies below
50Hz and above 20 kHz are uniformly amplified.
➢ The voltage gain remains constant in the mid-frequency range
which is known as the bandwidth.
5.3. Power Amplifiers – Classification
➢ The transistor power amplifiers handle large signals. Many of
them are driven so hard by the large input signal that collector
current is either cut off or is in saturation region during a large
portion of the input cycle. Therefore, such amplifiers are
generally classified according to the current conduction in the
active device:
Figure 5.1. Single-stage RC coupled amplifier
Department of E&CE Page 23 of 79 RAHUL S MAHENDRAKAR
Analog Electronics 20EC31P
➢ When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the
positive half cycle of the input and hence the collector current
Figure 5.3. Current flow in the Class-A amplifier flows. But during the negative half cycle of the input, the circuit
is reverse biased and the collector current will be absent. Hence
➢ In class-A amplifier the power dissipation of a transistor is
only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
maximum with no input signal and minimum with largest with
the input signal.
➢ Expression for Output Power
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡)
➢ Expression for Output Power PO(Max)= 4
The output power of Class-A amplifier is given by, In class-B amplifiers, power dissipation will be more.
PO(Max)=0.5 VCEQ ICQ
➢ Expression for Efficiency ➢ Expression for Efficiency
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶(𝑆𝑎𝑡)
The efficiency of the amplifier is defined as the ratio of ac power 𝑃𝑂(𝑚𝑎𝑥) П
delivered to load to the power supplied by the dc source to the ȠMax= 𝑃𝑑𝑐
= 4
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡) =4 =0.785=78.5%
transistor. П
𝑃𝑂(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 0.5𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 𝐼𝐶𝑄 Class B amplifiers offer much-improved efficiency and
ȠMax= 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 =0.5=50% theoretically it is 78.5%.
𝑑𝑐 𝐶𝐸𝑄 𝐶𝑄
50% is the highest possible efficiency for a class A amplifier.
Performance Criteria
Nature of Graph:
RC Coupled Amplifiers
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
➢ The RC coupled amplifier is a voltage amplifier, which
amplifies the voltage of the input signal.
➢ The resistors R1 and R2 form voltage divider bias circuit.
➢ The resistor RE provides bias stabilization.
➢ An emitter bypass capacitor CE is used in parallel with RE to
provide a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal. Without
this capacitor, a gain of the amplifier will be lost.
➢ The capacitor C1 is used to couple the input signal Vi to the base
of the transistor.
➢ The capacitor C2 is used to couple the output signal from the
collector of the transistor to load.
Figure 5.8. Circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier
Result: The frequency response curve of the RC coupled amplifier is PC loaded with Proteus 8.1 simulation software
plotted and verified.
Circuit Diagram:
Observations:
Course Content 6 ➢ Figure 6.1. shows the circuit diagram of class A series-fed
amplifier.
Power Amplifiers ➢ It is a class A amplifier with direct-coupled resistive load.
➢ The resistor RC is the load resistor.
➢ The transistor is biased such that the output current flows for the
Lecture Tutorial Practice
complete cycle (i.e., 3600) of the input signal. This condition is
(Knowledge Criteria) (Activity Criteria) (Performance achieved by locating the Q-point at the centre of the load line.
Criteria) 6.2. Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifier
Working of Class-A Series-fed ➢ Figure 6.2. shows the circuit diagram of transformer-coupled
amplifier and transformer-
class A amplifier.
coupled amplifier. Prepare a video/report
on any one real life
Class B- Push pull Amplifier application of a power
Simulate the working
and complementary-symmetry amplifier.
of Class-A amplifier.
push-pull amplifier.
Build and demonstrate
Simulate the working
Working of Class AB and radio player amplifier
of push pull amplifier.
Class C amplifiers. circuit.
➢ One part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one half- 5.3.3. Class-AB Amplifiers
cycle and other part pulls the signal low during the other half- ➢ The cross distortion may be avoided by applying slight forward
cycle and hence the name. bias voltage (0.7V for Si transistor and 0.3V for Ge transistor)
➢ Distortion can occur if the device characteristic is not linear. to the base-emitter junction of the both transistors.
6.4. Complementary Symmetry Push Pull Amplifiers ➢ The application of slight forward bias shifts the Q-point above
➢ Figure 6.3. shows the circuit diagram of complementary the cutoff.
symmetry push-pull amplifier. ➢ Each transistor operates more than one half cycle.
5.3.4. Class-C Amplifiers
➢ The class C amplifier is the most efficient power amplifier,
which can produce more load power than that of either class A
or class B amplifier.
➢ The output current flows only during a part of the positive (or
negative) half cycle of the input signal. This condition is
achieved by achieved biasing the transistor below cutoff.
➢ Class C amplifier is the most efficient power amplifier and its
overall efficiency may even approach to 100%.
6.5. Multistage Amplifiers
➢ Two or more amplifiers can be connected in a series
Figure 6.3. Complementary symmetry push pull Amplifier arrangement with output of one amplifier driving the input of the
➢ This arrangement uses two transistors in the emitter follower next stage amplifier as shown in the figure.
configuration.
➢ The term ‘Complementary’ here means that it uses two identical
transistors- NPN and PNP. Figure 6.4. Cascaded connection of amplifiers
➢ The term ‘Symmetry’ here means that both these transistors ➢ The basic purpose of a multistage arrangement is to increase
have identical input and output characteristics. the overall gain.
➢ There is no bias voltage. Only signal voltage drives the ➢ The overall gain AV of these cascaded stages is equal to the
transistors into conduction. product of individual voltage gains. i.e.,
➢ When no input signal is applied, none of the transistors conducts AV=A1 x A2 x …………………x An
and output voltage is zero.
➢ During positive half cycle of the input signal,
NPN transistor is ON
PNP transistor is OFF
During negative half cycle of the input signal,
NPN transistor is OFF
PNP transistor is ON
➢ A complete cycle of output signal is developed across the load.
➢ The circuit has unity gain.
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Analog Electronics 20EC31P
Power Amplifiers Aim: To simulate and test the working of push pull amplifier.
Components and Apparatus Required
Experiment No. 6.1. Class-A Amplifiers PC loaded with Proteus 8.1 simulation software
Aim: To simulate Class-A amplifier and observe the effect of biasing Circuit Diagram:
on the output.
Knowledge Criteria
Course Content 7 7.1. Introduction to Operational-Amplifier
As its name suggests, this op-amp is basically Amplifier and the
Introduction to Operational Amplifier basic job of an amplifier is to amplify the input signals.
why it is known as the operational amplifier?
In early days when digital computers were not evolved, at that
time the different mathematical functions like addition, subtraction,
Lecture Tutorial Practice
(Knowledge Criteria) (Activity Criteria) (Performance Criteria)
integration, and differentiation were performed using this operational
Op-amp amplifier. So, just by connecting few resistors and capacitors, it is
• Symbol possible to perform the different mathematical operations. And that is
• Block Diagram why this amplifier is known as the operational amplifier.
• Basic
Differential
Amplifier
7.2. Circuit Symbol of Operational Amplifier
Modes of Operation Figure shows the circuit symbol of an operational amplifier, it consists
• Single Ended of two inputs and one output and two power supplies connections. But
• Common mode there are many op-amp IC’s which runs on the single power supply.
• Differential
mode
Ideal and Practical
Explain the criteria for Identify Op-amp IC, its
characteristics of an op-
selecting an op-amp for a pins and interpret its
amp.
given application. datasheet.
Conduct an experiment to
Op-amp parameters
Identify at least 5 find the practical
• Input offset
electronic circuits using characteristics of Op-amp
voltage
op-amp and present the and compare them with
• Input offset
details of its working ideal characteristics
current
Figure 7.1. Circuit symbol of an op-amp
• Power supply
rejection ratio
➢ The input terminal marked by this positive sign is known as the
• CMRR non-inverting input terminal.
• Input and ➢ Another input terminal marked by this negative sign is the
Output known as the inverting input terminal.
impedance ➢ The operational amplifier, it is one kind of differential amplifier
• Gain with the single output. It means that this amplifier amplifies the
• Gain-Bandwidth
Product
difference between the two input signals.
• Slew rate So, let's say V1 and V2 are the input signals being applied to this
operational amplifier and the gain of this operational amplifier
is A, then the output of operational amplifier is given by,
VOut=A (V1-V2) Volts
Performance Criteria ➢ The main pins in the 741 op-amp are pin2, pin3 and pin6.
In inverting amplifier, a positive voltage is applied to pin2 of the
Identify Op-amp IC, its pins and interpret its op-amp; we get output as negative voltage through pin 6. The
datasheet. polarity has been inverted.
In a non-inverting amplifier, a positive voltage is applied to pin3
of the op-amp; we get output as positive voltage through pin 6.
Experiment No. 7.1. Polarity remains the same in non-inverting amplifier.
➢ VCC is usually in the range from 12 to 15 volts. When two
Aim: To identify the pins of µA741 Op-amp IC, know their supplies (+VCC/-VCC) are used, they are the same voltage and
functionality and interpret its datasheet. of opposite sign in almost all cases.
Tabular Column:
Practical Characteristics of an Op-amp Sl. No. Parameter Value
1 Non-inverting terminal voltage (V1)
Experiment 7.2. 2 Inverting terminal voltage (V2)
3 Differential voltage (VD)
Aim: To find practical values of differential gain AD, Common mode 4 Average voltage (VAV)
gain ACM and CMRR of given Op-amp and compare them with ideal
5 Output voltage (Vo)
values.
𝑉
6 Differential voltage gain AD=𝑉𝑜
Components and Apparatus Required 𝐷
𝑉𝑂
Sl. Equipment/ 7 Common mode gain ACM=𝑉
𝐴𝑉
Specification Quantity 𝐴𝐷
No. Component Name CMRR= 𝐴
8
1 Op-amp IC µA741 01 𝐶𝑀
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply DC input voltages at the inverting and non-inverting input
terminals.
3. Measure the DC voltages at the inverting and non-inverting
input terminals using digital multimeter.
Figure 7.8. Circuit diagram to find AD, ACM and CMRR
4. Calculate the required parameters.
Result: The practical values of AD, ACM and CMRR of given op-amp is
5. Disconnect the circuit safely.
measured and compared with ideal values.
Aim: To find practical values of Input bias current and Input offset 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
current of given Op-amp and compare them with ideal values. 2. Measure the DC voltages at the inverting and non-inverting
input terminals using digital multimeter.
Components and Apparatus Required 3. By using ohm’s law, calculate bias currents at inverting and non-
Sl. Equipment/ inverting terminals.
Specification Quantity 4. Take the average of values obtained in third step to find output
No. Component Name
1 Op-amp IC µA741 01 input bias current.
2 Op-amp power supply ±15V, 2 Amp 01 5. Calculate the sum of the bias currents flowing into inverting
3 Digital multimeter - 01 inputs and non-inverting inputs to find out input bias current.
4 Bread board - 01 6. Disconnect the circuit safely.
5 Single stand wires - As needed
Result: The practical values of Input bias current IB and Input offset
current IIO and compared with ideal values.
Circuit Diagram:
Performance Criteria
Theory:
In inverting amplifier circuit, the non-inverting input is
grounded and A signal is applied to inverting input through resistor R1
and feedback is implemented with resistor RF. The output voltage is
given by
𝑅
Vout=- 𝑅𝐹 Vin Volts
1
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
Figure 8.15. Noninverting Amplifier Circuit Diagram
2. Apply biasing voltages to the op-amp IC.
3. Set 1V(p-p), 1KHz input signal from function generator. Design:
4. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. 𝑅 1𝐾
5. Observe inversion waveform at pin no 6. Gain A= 1+ 𝑅𝐹=1+1𝐾=2
1
6. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Output voltage VOut= A x VIn = 2x1=2V
Result: An inverted waveform is obtained using op-amp circuit.
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Circuit Diagram:
Tabular Column:
Theoretical Output Practical Output
V1 V2
Voltage Voltage
In Volts In Volts
VO=-(V1-V2) in volts VO=-(V1-V2) in volts
Theory:
A difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two
input voltages. This circuit is a combination of inverting amplifier and
noninverting amplifier.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply biasing voltages to the op-amp IC.
3. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Apply input voltages and note down output voltage.
5. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Result: Operation of difference amplifier using op-amp is tested.
Knowledge Criteria Relationship between current through and voltage across the
capacitor is,
9.1. Op-amp as Integrator 𝑑𝑣
➢ A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of 𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡𝐶 ------------(4)
the input voltage waveform is called integrator or integral Therefore, current through CF is given by,
𝑑
amplifier. 𝑖𝐹 = 𝑐𝐹 𝑑𝑡 (𝑣2 − 𝑣0 )----------(5)
➢ Figure 9.1. shows the circuit diagram of integrator. Substituting equation (3) and (5) in (2),
𝑣𝑖𝑛 −𝑣2 𝑑
= 𝐶𝐹 (𝑣2 − 𝑣0 )---------(6)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
By virtual ground concept and open loop gain of A is very high,
therefore V1=V2≈0
Equation (6) can be written as,
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑑
= 𝑐𝐹 (−𝑣0 )---------(7)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
The output can be obtained by integrating both sides with respect
to time,
Figure 9.1. Integrator
𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 = 𝑈𝑇𝑃 − 𝐿𝑇𝑃 In the circuit, R1 and R2 are chosen such that,
𝑅1 𝑅1 R2=2R1
𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 = [+𝑣𝑆𝑎𝑡 ] − [−𝑣𝑆𝑎𝑡 ]
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 Hence, VB=-2Vin
2𝑅1 Thus, during positive half cycle of the input, rectified voltage
𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 = [+𝑣𝑆𝑎𝑡 ] VB applied to terminal B of the inverting summing amplifier is
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
-2Vin.
The voltage at terminal A is,
9.4. Precision Full Wave Rectifier
VA=+Vin
➢ The use of op-amps in rectifiers eliminate diode-voltage drop
The output from the summing circuit with R3=R4=R5 is,
that occurs with semiconductor diode rectifiers, thus they
VO=-(VA+VB)
become precision rectifiers.
VO=-(Vin-2Vin) =+Vin
➢ Figure 9.8. shows the circuit diagram of precision full wave
➢ When input Vin is negative,
rectifier.
Output of the op-amp terminal goes positive and this makes D2
reverse biased and D1 forward biased.
The positive voltage at the output of the op-amp tends to pull the
op-amp inverting terminal in a positive direction. But such pull
causes the op-amp output to go negative. So, the output settles
at the voltage close to ground level. Hence, the negative half
cycle is clipped-off. That is,
VB=0
VA=-Vin
VO=-(-Vin+0)=+Vin
Figure 9.8. Precision Full Wave Rectifier ➢ Waveform at the output VO is a full-wave rectified version of the
➢ The precision full wave rectifier circuit consists of the following input voltage as shown in the figure 9.9.
sections:
▪ Precision half-wave rectifier
▪ Inverting summing amplifier
➢ The input voltage Vin is applied to terminal A of the summing
amplifier and to the input of precision rectifier.
The output of the precision rectifier is designated as VB and is
applied to terminal B of the summing amplifier.
The precision half wave rectifier uses an inverting amplifier
configuration.
➢ When input Vin is positive,
Op-amp output terminal is negative, diode D1 is reverse biased
and D2 is forward biased. And output voltage VB is given by,
𝑅2
𝑣𝐵 = − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 Figure 9.9. Precision Full Wave Rectifier output
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply biasing voltages to the op-amp IC.
Vin(p-p) 3. Set 10V(p-p), 1KHz square input signal from function generator.
10V
1KHz
4. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Observe output waveform at pin no 6.
6. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Figure 9.14. Integrator circuit diagram Result: Working of op-amp as integrator is verified.
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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply biasing voltages to the op-amp IC.
3. Set 10V(p-p), 1KHz square wave input signal from function
generator.
4. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Observe output waveform at pin no 6.
6. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Result: Working of op-amp as differentiator is verified.
Figure 9.16. Differentiator Circuit Diagram
Experiment No. 8.3. Schmitt Trigger Similarly, output voltage VO switches rapidly from -Vsat to +Vsat
when input voltage Vin goes below certain negative level called
Aim: To construct and test an op-amp circuit to generate clock pulses. LTP.
Components and Apparatus Required:
Waveforms:
Sl. Equipment/ Component
Specification Quantity
No. Name
1 Function generator 0-1MHz 01
2 Op-amp power supply ±12V 01
3 DC regulated power supply 0-30V 01
4 CRO 0-1MHz 01
5 Op-amp µA741 01
6 Resistors 1KΩ 01
7 Breadboard - 01
8 Single stand wires - As needed
Circuit Diagram:
➢ Working The feedback voltage Vf is 1800 out of phase with output voltage
When circuit is powered up, the capacitor C is charged. Vout.
The circulating tank current I flows through both L1 and L2, The oscillations across C2 are applied to the amplifier input.
setting up the oscillations of frequency f. The amount of feedback depends upon C1 and C2.
The output voltage Vout of the amplifier appears across L1 and ➢ The frequency of oscillations is given by
feedback voltage Vf appears across L2. 1
f=2П 𝐿𝑐
The feedback voltage Vf is 1800 out of phase with output voltage √ 𝑒𝑞
𝐶1 𝐶2
Vout. Where, Ceq=𝐶
1 +𝐶2
The oscillations across L2 are applied to the amplifier input. 𝑐
The feedback factor β is given by, β=𝑐1
The amount of feedback depends upon L1 and L2. 2
➢ The frequency of oscillations is given by
1
f=2П 𝐿 𝐶
√ 𝑒𝑞
Where, Leq=L1+L2
𝐿
The feedback factor β is given by, β=𝐿1
2
➢ Applications
i Used as local oscillator in radio receivers.
ii Suitable for producing oscillations in the radio
frequency range up to 30MHz.
10.5. Colpitts’s Oscillator
➢ Figure 10.3. shows the circuit diagram of Colpitts’s oscillator
using BJT.
➢ A phase shift of 1800 is produced by the transistor amplifier and
a further phase shift of 1800 is produced by the feedback network
(LC tank circuit) so that phase shift around the closed loop is
3600.
➢ The LC tank circuit is made up of two capacitors C1 and C2
placed across a common inductor L and centre of Capacitors is
tapped. Figure 10.3. Colpitts’s oscillator
➢ Working ➢ Applications
When circuit is powered up, the capacitors C1 and C2 are
charged. i Used in radio and mobile communications
The circulating tank current I flows through both C1 and C2, ii Used in microwave applications
setting up the oscillations of frequency f. iii Used as Surface Acoustical Wave (SAW) resonator.
The output voltage Vout of the amplifier appears across C1 and
feedback voltage Vf appears across C2.
10.6. Crystal Oscillator ➢ The transistor amplifier provides basic amplification while the
➢ In many applications it is desirable to maintain constant oscillator frequency set by the crystal.
frequency with extreme low tolerances. ➢ The crystal is connected in series-resonant path and operates at
➢ In order to maintain constant frequency, piezo electric crystals the crystal-resonant frequency.
are used in place of LC or RC circuits, this type of oscillators are ➢ At the series-resonant frequency of the crystal, impedance is
called crystal oscillators. smallest and the amount of positive feedback is the largest. The
➢ A quartz crystal exhibits the property that when mechanical phase shift around the closed loop is 0o.
stress is applied across the faces of the crystal, a difference of ➢ The series capacitor CC is used to fine tune the oscillator
voltage develops across opposite faces of the crystal. This frequency.
property is called Piezo-electric effect.
➢ Similarly, a voltage is applied across one set of faces of the
crystal causes mechanical distortion in the crystal shape.
When alternating voltage is applied to crystal, the crystal is
distorted by an amount proportional to the voltage and causes it
to vibrate at its natural resonance frequency. This frequency is
very stable quantity and these piezo electric crystals are used to
stabilize the frequency of oscillations.
➢ A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned circuit oscillator using
piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank circuit as shown in the
figure.
Performance Criteria
Calculation:
Sinusoidal Oscillators
𝟏
f=
𝟐П√𝑳𝑪
Experiment No. 10.1. Hartley Oscillator
L=L1+L2
Aim: To simulate and verify the working of Hartley oscillator.
𝟏
Components and Apparatus Required: f=
𝟐.П.√(𝟓𝒎+𝟑𝒎).𝟏µ
Theory:
Circuit Diagram: 1
f=
2.П.√(0.05µ 𝑥 100µ)
= 71 KHz
Observations:
Amplitude(P-to-P)
Time Period
Frequency
Theory:
Course Content 11 ➢ The circuit consists of three identical RC sections and an op-
amp.
Active Filters ➢ A single RC section introduces ideal phase shift of 90o, however
in practical at particular frequency, the RC components are
selected to introduce phase shift of 60o.
Lecture Tutorial Practice ➢ Three such identical RC networks in effect produces 1800 phase
(Knowledge Criteria) (Activity Criteria) (Performance Criteria) shift.
▪ Working of RC phase-
shift and
➢ The op-amp configured in inverting amplifier configuration
Wein-bridge Design and implement introduces 180o phase shift.
Discuss the
oscillators using Op-
problems to design
/Simulate RC phase shift ➢ The total phase shift introduced is 360o or 0o.
amp and their oscillator for generating ➢ The frequency of sinusoidal waveform produced by RC phase
and analyze 1st order
applications. a frequency of 1khz
Butterworth filters. shift oscillator is given by,
▪ Filters: Classification, using BJT. Verify the
Applications & same using op-amp. 1
Demonstrate how f=2П𝑅𝐶√6
Advantages of Active
LEDs can be made to
over Passive Filters.
blink on the beats of
Conduct an experiment 11.2. Wein Bridge Oscillator
▪ Filter Terminology, to plot the frequency ➢ Wein bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator used to generate
music
frequency response of response of LPF & HPF
1st order Butterworth
sinewave in audio frequency range.
LPF, HPF (No ➢ Figure 11.2 shows the circuit diagram of Wein bridge oscillator.
Derivation).
Knowledge Criteria
The frequency at which the gain of the filter drops by 3 dB from ➢ The first order low pass filter has a practical slope of -
that of the passband determines where the stop band begins. 20dB/decade as shown in the figure in figure.
It is also called as corner frequency or break frequency.
iv Fall-off rate
Fall-off rate is the ratio of change in gain to increase in
frequency.
Fall-off rate of 20 dB/decade indicates that amplifier gain varies
by 20dB for every tenfold increase in frequency.
v Frequency scaling
The procedure used to convert an original cut-off frequency to a
new cut-off frequency is called frequency scaling.
11.6. First order Butterworth Active Low Pass Filter
➢ The Low Pass Filter provides a constant output from dc up to a
cut off frequency fH and rejects all signals above that frequency. Figure 11.4. Practical characteristics of First Order Butterworth LPF
➢ Figure 11.3 shows the circuit diagram of first order Butterworth The LPF has constant gain AF from 0 to high cutoff frequency
low pass filter that uses RC network for filtering. fH.
At fH the gain is 0.707AF
After fH, the gain decreases at a constant rate 20dB/decade.
11.7. First order Butterworth Active High Pass Filter
➢ Figure shows the circuit diagram of first order Butterworth high
pass filter that uses RC network for filtering.
𝑅
AF=1+ 𝑅𝐹 Performance Criteria
1
➢ Low cutoff frequency is given by,
1 Sinusoidal Oscillators & Filter
fL=2П𝑅𝐶
➢ The gain of the first order high pass filter increases at a
constant rate of +20dB/decade up to fL as shown in figure. Experiment No. 11.1. RC Phase Shift Oscillator
Circuit Diagram:
Waveform: Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Observe the output waveform at pin no. 6 in CRO.
3. Measure the amplitude and frequency.
4. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Result: RC phase shift oscillator is designed using op-amp and its
working is tested.
Figure 11.8. Output waveform of RC phase shift oscillator
Calculation:
1 1
f= = = 1.9 KHz
2П𝑅𝐶 √6 2𝑥П𝑥3.3𝐾𝑥0.01µ
Observations:
Amplitude(P-to-P)
Time Period
Frequency
Theory:
Aim: To plot the frequency response of Active low pass filter. Input Voltage Vin= 5V
𝑽
Components and Apparatus Required: Sl. No. Frequency Output Voltage Vo Gain=20log 𝑽𝑶
𝒊
1 100 Hz
Sl. Equipment/ Component
Specification Quantity 2 200 Hz
No. Name
3 300 Hz
1 Op-amp power supply ±12V 01
4 400 Hz
2 CRO
3 Op-amp µA741 01 5 500 Hz
6 700 Hz
4 Resistors 10KΩ 03
7 800 Hz
5 Capacitors 0.1µF 01
8 1KHz
6 Breadboard - 01
9 2KHz
7 Single stand wires - As needed
10 3KHz
Circuit Diagram: 11 4KHz
12 5KHz
Theory:
➢ The active low pass filter is made up of op-amp.
➢ An active low pass filter is composed of one reactive element
such as Capacitor and active component such as op-amp.
A resistor is used with capacitor to form RC filter.
➢ At the lower frequencies, the input signals flow directly through
amplifying circuit and at the higher frequencies, it is bypasses
and made to pass through capacitor C. This increases the
Figure 11.9. Circuit Diagram of Active LPF amplitude of the output signal by passband gain.
Nature of Graph: Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Set the input voltage Vin(P-P)=5V.
3. Note down the output voltage at pin no 6 from CRO.
4. Calculate the gain.
5. Plot frequency vs. Gain graph.
6. Release the connections safely.
Result: Active LPF is constructed and its frequency response
characteristics are studied.
Figure 11.10. Characteristics of Active LPF
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Course Content 12
13.4. IC-555 Timer as Astable Multivibrator 13.5. IC-555 Timer as Monostable Multivibrator
➢ Figure shows the circuit diagram of IC-555 stable multivibrator. ➢ Figure shows the circuit diagram of IC-555 monostable.
Toff Aim: To construct and test the working monostable multivibrator using
timer IC-555.
T
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Sl. Equipment/ Component
Specification Quantity
2. Connect channel 1 of CRO to capacitor voltage and note down No. Name
2 1 1 +5V fixed power supply 01
the values of 3VCC and 3VCC.
2 Signal generator
3. Connect channel 2 of CRO to pin number 3 and note down
voltage and time period. 3 CRO 01
4. Disconnect the circuit safely. 4 IC-555 01
5 Resistors 10 KΩ 02
Result: Working of astable multivibrator is tested. 6 Capacitors 0.01µF 02
7 CRO 0-25 MHz 01
8 Breadboard 01
9 Wires As needed
Theory:
A monostable multivibrator (MMV) often called a one-shot
multivibrator, is a pulse generator circuit in which the duration of the
pulse is determined by the R-C network, connected externally to the 555
timer. In such a vibrator, one state of output is stable while the other is
quasi-stable (unstable). For auto-triggering of output from quasi-stable
state to stable state energy is stored by an externally connected capacitor
C to a reference level. The time taken in storage determines the pulse
width. The transition of output from stable state to quasi-stable state is
accom-plished by external triggering.
Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Set 2V(p-p-), 1KHz square input from function generator.
3. Observe the output.
4. Disconnect the circuit safely.
Result: Working of monostable multivibrator is tested.
Output Waveforms: