Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154

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Sustainable Cities and Society

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Sustainable city concept based on green hydrogen energy

Ibrahim Dincer a, b, Nader Javani b, *, G. Kubilay Karayel b, c
a
Clean Energy Research Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Ontario Tech. University, Ontario, Canada
b
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul 34349, Turkey
c
Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current study investigates the green hydrogen production from renewable energy sources for the metro­
Biomass politan city of Istanbul by using electrolysers. The main idea is to create a hydrogen map for every district in
Geothermal Istanbul, based on renewable energy sources and water splitting technology. The potentially available renewable
Green hydrogen
sources, such as solar (including offshore), wind (including offshore), biomass, geothermal and underwater
Society
Solar energy
current are used for calculating the total hydrogen production potential. Istanbul’s potential for producing green
Sustainable city hydrogen is estimated to be 7.96 Mt. The study results show that Catalca, Şile, Silivri, Arnavutköy, and Beykoz
Wind energy come out as the districts with the highest green hydrogen potential with 1.49 Mt, 1.19 Mt, 1.12 Mt, 0.57 Mt, and
Istanbul 0.46 Mt, respectively. After supplying the necessary power demand for the city, the remaining power is used to
produce green hydrogen which may contribute an economic value of over US $100 billion with a current price of
$13/kg of hydrogen and 23.88 billion US$ with a targeted price of $3/kg of hydrogen, respectively. The available
potentials for each district are also specifically studied and discussed. It is more importantly expected to reduce
the greenhouse gas emissions by about 90% which will ve very important to achieve a carbon-neutral city and
hence country due its dominated role. Furthermore, the results provide a clear guidance to enable policymakers
and private sectors to use renewable energy potentials for their investment purposes or promote clean energy
programs, tackling carbon-based energy consumption, pollution, and greenhouse effect. This, later on, can be
used by policymakers and energy providers to help the city and local communities for achieving the United
Nation’s sustainable development goals.

Communities, 2007), and the US Recovery and Reinvestment Act

1. Introduction
The rapid development of humanity has brought problems, such as
high electricity demand, fast resources consumption, power shortage,
and environmental pollution. We are now in era in which sustainable
cities and societies are highly needed for the future generation and
achieve the sustainable development goals of the United Nations.
Further to note that from the middle of the 18th century, fossil fuels
(oil, gas, and coal) were the main power sources, however, this led to a
high amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions all around the globe.
The Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions induced grave damage to the at­
mosphere, leading to Ozone layer depletion. Due to this fact, all coun­
tries around the world have acknowledged the issue and started to
change or apply new policies concerning energy consumption. The
Kyoto Protocol (United Nations, 1998), the EU directive (European
Parliament and the Council 2001, 2009), Commission of the European
Communities energy policy (Commission of the European
(United States Congress, 2009) were promoted as compelling factors for
the implementation of supporting policies. Based on the gathered data
from South Korea’s hydrogen map, hydrogen demand is expected to be
1.94 Mt by 2030, and 5.26 Mt by 2040 (Ministry of Trade Industry and
Energy, 2020). The most general hydrogen production method is Steam
Methane Reforming (SMR) using natural gas; however, South Korea
plans to change these methods to water electrolyser in the near future to
avoid using fossil fuels. It is also expected that by 2040 the energy
production using fuel cells will increase up to 15 GW (Ministry of Trade
Industry and Energy, 2020). Akande et al. (2019) used hierarchical
clustering and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), synthesized 32 in­
dicators into four components, and ranked Europe’s 28 capital cities
based on their ability to adapt new smart and sustainable technologies.
The analyses and calculations showed that the top five sustainable cities
with better smart applications are Berlin, Stockholm, Helsinki, London,
and Copenhagen, respectively. The least five cities in the same category
are Sofia, Bucharest, Athens, Nicosia, and Ljubljana. Based on the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: njavani@yildiz.edu.tr (N. Javani).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.104154
Received 16 May 2022; Received in revised form 27 August 2022; Accepted 27 August 2022
Available online 3 September 2022
2210-6707/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I. Dincer et al.
Nomenclature
ΔG Gibbs free energy
Mt million tons
Kt kilo tons
Greek letters
ψ conversion factor
Acronyms
AEL alkaline electrolyser
CHP combined heat and power
CHP combined heat and power
DC direct Current
DRP demand response program
EU European Union
F Faraday’s constant
results, Capital cities in Nordic and Western Europe behave better in this
regard.
Seyyedeh-Barhagh et al. (2019) studied performance analysis of a
hydrogen storage system (HSS) from economic and environmental as­
pects. Weighted sum approach and max-min fuzzy satisfying techniques
used in the analysis. According to the results, without considering De­
mand Response Program (DRP), emission of the system is 640.89 kg, and
total cost is 528.91 €. If DRP is considered in the calculations, total cost
is reduced by 8.55%, however total emission is increased to 1.39%,
which means that economic objectives are prior to the environmental
ones when DRP is considered. Dawood et al. (2020) investigated four
different steps of hydrogen energy systems, including production, stor­
age, safety, and utilization. Purification of hydrogen is also important
because it may cause more cost and pollution. On the other hand, the
cleanliness of the hydrogen depends on the production method. Zero
carbon emission energy and end-use applications depend on the pro­
duced hydrogen; therefore, the origin of the hydrogen is the most
important factor. A color-coding model is also created to determine the
purity of the hydrogen. However, the method was not successful and the
authors proposed an innovative color-coding model to describe the pu­
rity degree of produced hydrogen. The USA has the most developed
hydrogen distribution system for fuel cell vehicles, especially in Los
Angeles, California, San Francisco, and Sacramento. There were 7800
fuel cell vehicles and 28,000 hydrogen fuel cell-powered forklifts
available in United States in 2020 (Miller et al., 2020). Al Hajri et al.
(2021) investigated hybrid systems consisting of gas-fired unit (GFU),
non-gas-fired unit (NGFU), combined heat and power unit (CHP), and
renewable production unit. Their study aimed to shift peak load demand
to off-peak hours, reducing operation cost using different methods such
as Power to Gas (P2G) and hydrogen energy storage (HES). Their results
show that P2G, HES, and demand response program significantly
improve the efficiency of the system and its flexibility.
Zhang et al. (2020) used deep reinforcement learning to formulate
the dynamic energy conversion and management problem for renewable
energy systems. Results of the study show that the deep learning
mechanism can consider load demand, the intermittent nature of
renewable energy, flexibility, and the gas prices, and is capable of
creating a real-time response in a dynamic environment by learning and
adapting. Also, the authors were planning to investigate different ways
to determine an optimal economic conversion coefficient (ω) value
based on the costs of economic operations and shifting peak load goals in
the future. Jamshidi & Askarzadeh (2019) designed an off-grid hybrid
system consisting of photovoltaic panel, fuel cell, diesel generator,
electrolyser, and hydrogen tank in Kerman, Iran and analyzed it for the
optimal usage. Based on their results, if the hybrid system is properly
2
Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154
GDP grand domestic product
GFU gas-fired unit
GHG greenhouse gas
HES hydrogen storage system
HSS hydrogen storage system
KOH potassium hydroxide
NaOH sodium hydroxide
NGFU non gas-fired Unit
P2G Power to Gas
PCA Principal Component Analysis
PEM polymer membrane electrolyser
PV photovoltaic
SD system dynamics
SMR steam methane reforming
SOE Solid Oxide Electrolyser
UECR unit energy charge rate
sized for optimization, total cost will decrease. In addition, considering
both operating reserve and solar plus load uncertainties, first one is more
impactful on the system. Bødal et al. (2020) investigated carbon
reduction difference from hydrogen produced by renewable energy
sources and steam methane reforming of natural gas. The State of Texas
from the United States of America was chosen in their case study. High
solar and wind energy potential of the state, already existing hydrogen
demand from nearby petrochemical operations and cheap available
natural gas based on proximity of the natural gas sources played an
important role for this choice. With the help of a least-cost capacity
expansion model, they mainly investigated relationship between energy
production from renewable energy and hydrogen production from
polymer membrane electrolyser (PEM). Results show that pre-defined
hydrogen demand in 2050, while the flexibility between two methods
helps to integrate renewable energy into power system with less battery
storage while electrolyzing with PEM from wind energy can carry out
power demand in the north-west area of Texas. In addition, future works
includes improvements on the model regarding large power plants,
transmission lines and steam methane reforming facilities. Okonkwo
et al. (2021) worked on a road map considering potential of carbon free
hydrogen production in Qatar as a case study. Utilization and exporta­
tion of hydrogen investigated, and decision framework developed. Three
different production methods available in Qatar considered in the
research. These were natural gas, steam methane reforming with solar
integration and seawater electrolysis. Hydrogen production potential
from these three alternatives compared to each other in terms of envi­
ronmental, technical, and economic criterion. Results show that by
2050, cost of electrolyser is expected to reduce by 70%, and green
hydrogen production will become competitive as blue ammonia by 2040
or earlier. Future works are planned for techno-economic analysis of
large-scale hydrogen production. Jacobson et al. (2018) created a road
map for 53 cities in North America using solar, wind, and hydro energy
for eliminating greenhouse gas emissions, and pollution. Based on
available data, different outcomes predicted until 2050. Researchers
also propose a water-wind-sunlight based energy production method by
30% in total installed capacity and 100% by 2050 to reduce and elim­
inate air pollution and avoid 1.5◦ C net global warming. All 53 cities
mentioned in the roadmap have potential to reduce approximately 9,
750 (2,900-18,200) air-pollution moralities/year today and 7,000(1,
700-16,000)/year in 2050. This can prevent 93.2 billion US. Dollar in
2050, and create over 93,000 new, full-time jobs for people. Arat et al.
(2020) investigated and compiled hydrogen-related research in Turkey
as numerical data. They considered research papers, graduate thesis,
projects, and patents between 1970 and 2020. There were an increased
number of studies from late 1990s to early 2000. More detailed studies
I. Dincer et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154

about different aspects of hydrogen technologies for the years after Table 1
2010. Similar to other countries, in Turkey, the main electricity source is Typical specifications of alkaline electrolyser (AEL).
fossil fuels. According to the energy exchange company EPIAS, the Specification Alkaline Electrolyser (AEL) (Nel Hydrogen
electricity consumption of the country was 289.4 TWh in 2019 (Trans­ Atmospheric Alkaline Electrolyser Specification
parency platform, real-time generation EXIST (EPIAS), 2022). The fossil Brochure 2022)
fuel-based power plants provided 58% of this energy consumption Model Name Nel-A1000
alone. This is equal to 46.24 GW, which is 50.5% of the total capacity Net Production Rate (Nm3/h) 600
(Transparency platform, real-time generation EXIST (EPIAS), 2022). As Production Capacity Range 15-100
(%)
a signatory of the Paris Agreement, Turkey agreed to have its contri­ Power Consumption at Stack 4.4
bution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to reduce the global warming (kWh/Nm3)
and climate change effects. There are multiple planned feasibility Delivery Gauge Pressure (bar) 1-200
studies in Turkey’s 11th Development Plan for hydrogen technologies, H₂ Purity (%) 99.9
Electrolyte 25% KOH Aqueous Solution
especially from renewable energies and natural gas (Turkey Presidency
Ambient Temperature (◦ C) 5-35
of Strategy and Budget, 11th Development Plan, 2022). Dincer et al Efficiency (%) 66.10
investigated Turkey’s renewable energy potential for green hydrogen
production in different cities (Dincer et al., 2021). A number of studies
have identified different renewable resources such as solar (Karayel
1
et al., 2021), wind (Karayel et al., 2022), underwater current, biomass, Anode : 2OH− (aq) →O2 (g) + H2 O(l) + 2e− (3)
2
geothermal, hydroelectric, and wave energy as power sources to pro­
duce green hydrogen using electrolyser. Applying the same idea to the Cathode : 2H2 O(l) + 2e− →H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) (4)
city of Istanbul is an important and tedious task since the city hosts
approximately 18% of the country’s population, 27% of national GDP, Note that Table 1 is given here to list some typical specifications of
accounts for 18% of national energy use, produces 38% of total indus­ the alkaline electrolyser considered for this research.
trial output and more than 50% of services, and generates 40% of total In the current study, the electrolysis process is used for hydrogen
national tax revenues (Energy Market Regulatory Authory, Yearly Sector production in Istanbul. City of Istanbul is located northwest of the
Report, 2022). country and is a historical city with the unique feature of being a bridge
In this study, both onshore and offshore solar and wind energies, between Asia and Europe. Istanbul is one of the important transit routes
animal wastes from various sized domestic animals, agricultural wastes, between the East and the West. According to Electricity Market Sector
forestry wastes, municipal, and usable nonchemical industrial wastes, Report 2020 (Energy Market Regulatory Authory, Yearly Sector Report,
geothermal energy, wave, and underwater current are considered for 2022), the electricity consumption of Istanbul was 38.49 TWh, which
green hydrogen production using electrolyser for Istanbul. The idea is to corresponds to 16.49% of the total consumption of the whole country. It
distinguish regions with higher green hydrogen potential. The produced is important to highlight the importance of selecting Istanbul as a key
hydrogen can be transported to other regions that have no stored focal point to produce hydrogen due to following reasons:
hydrogen. This will be of vital importance in emergency conditions and
natural disasters such as earthquakes. Furthermore, the illustrations • It is the largest metropolitan city in Europe and one of the top cities
provided with the respective data can be used for establishing sustain­ in the world.
able city concept. The renewable-based systems are then recognized as a • It has the highest population in Turkey (over 15 million) almost
significant solution for better environment and sustainable development covering 18% of the country’s total population.
while covering the energy demand. • It also covers 27% of national GDP, accounts for 18% of national
energy use, produces 38% of total industrial output and more than
2. System description and analysis procedure 50% of services, and generates 40% of total national tax revenues
(Energy Market Regulatory Authory, Yearly Sector Report, 2022).
Water-splitting technology is a widely used method to produce high • It has the biggest industrial hub.
purity hydrogen. Electrolysis process is a chemical process, in which • It is recognized as the business center of the country.
water splits into hydrogen and oxygen. Then, the electrons transport • It has largest production facilities of the country.
through an external circuit (Godula-Jopek, 2015). There are three main • It has largest water resources due the fact that surrounded by Mar­
different electrolyser types including alkaline (AEL), Polymer Mem­ mara sea and Black sea.
brane Electrolyser (PEM), and Solid Oxide Electrolyser (SOE). The • It has the most diverse population and economic activities.
electrolyte is mainly based on potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium • It connects two continents: Asia and Europe and becomes the most
hydroxide (NaOH). With the help of a specific amount of DC current, strategic city historically and presently.
separation process happens. The electrolyte should have a high ionic • It has the largest airports and ports for connection to the local and
conductivity. Following reaction is valid for the mentioned three types international markets for trade which will be the most suitable for
of electrolyser systems. hydrogen trade.
/ • It has the largest economic sectors, including transportation, indus­
H2 O(l) + electrical energy → H2(g) + 1 2O2(g) (1) trial, residential, commercial, public, agricultural and utility in a
most diverse manner.
The minimum electric voltage (reversible voltage) is determined by
the Gibbs free energy, J/mol, (ΔG ) and reversible voltage as ΔG∝zVrev .
The European side and Anatolian side’s power consumptions are
The reaction’s voltage limit is found from Equation
25.66 TWh, and 12.83 TWh, respectively. Due to the small area and
Vrev = ΔG/zF (2) dense population, multiple industrial zones, and heavy traffic, it is
necessary to switch the energy sector from relying on fossil fuels to
where F is Faraday’s constant. renewable energy-based systems. There are multiple renewable energy
Note that choosing the correct type of electrolyte is very important resources around the city, such as solar, wind, underwater current,
for the electrolysis, especially for alkaline electrolysers. Ionic trans­ geothermal, hydroelectric, and biomass energy. Regarding solar energy,
portation of hydroxyl (OH-) between anode and cathode electrodes in potential can be changed in various places due to insolation values.
alkaline electrolyser can be seen in Eqs. (3) and (4). However, in a city like Istanbul, the solar radiation change is marginal

3
I. Dincer et al.
Fig. 1. Illustration of hydrogen production using electrolysis from various renewable resources.
between districts. Solar radiation and energy data are collected from the
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Solar Energy Potential Atlas
(Nel Hydrogen Atmospheric Alkaline Electrolyser Specification
Brochure, 2022). In order to harvest solar energy, bi-facial PV panels
with the ability to capture solar energy from both sides with an effi­
ciency of 21.5% are considered for the photovoltaic (PV) systems (LG
BiFacial Product Catalogue, 2022). Offshore solar energy is only
considered in the north shores of the city due to Marmara Sea is having
more naval traffic, seaside private housing, tourist attraction areas and
beaches. Speed, direction, and annual average data for wind energy is
taken from General Directorate of Meteorology and Ministry of Energy
and Natural Resources (General Directorate of Meteorology, 2022;
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 2022). The tower height for a
wind turbine is assumed 50 m and it is horizontal for the research. At the
same time, it may come to attention that such high towers are not
applicable in crowded regions. It worth mentioning that for such re­
gions, already there is no space to install high wind turbines. If appli­
cable, vertical wind turbines can be used. For the suitable regions of the
Fig. 2. hydrogen production potential with alkaline electrolyser from renewable energy sources.
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Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154
city, generic models such as Vestas V-90 2 MW wind turbine are selected
for the calculations (Nozebra, 2022). For offshore applications of wind
energy, a bigger wind turbine with higher installed capacity than
onshore is chosen due to the higher wind speed in offshore areas,
therefore, districts located next to the Black Sea have a higher potential
than others (Vestas V117-4.2 MW Offshore Wind Turbine Specification
Brochure, 2022). In order to calculate undersea current, a few specific
spots are chosen from Bosporus (General Directorate of Meteorology,
2022) to make an assumption. Current speed is generally low around
Istanbul due to the Marmara and the Black Sea being inner seas, two
separate undersea turbines chosen for the calculations in this research
due to their low cut-in speed differences (Forster GL-P-502-25 Undersea
Turbine Specification Brochure 2022; Atlantis-AR1500 Undersea Tur­
bine Specification Brochure, 2022). Only the Black Sea border of the city
is considered for tidal energy, due to Bosporus and the Marmara Sea
having high naval traffic, touristic routes, and lack of usable sea surface
area. For the wave energy, the assumed sea depth is 75 m. The wave
height (m) and wave period (s) data are taken from the General
I. Dincer et al. Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154

Table 2
Hydrogen production potential from solar, wind, wave, and biomass energy for districts of Istanbul.
Districts Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Districts Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen
production production production production production production production production
from solar from wind from wave from biomass from solar from wind from wave from biomass
energy (kt) energy (kt) energy (kt) energy (kt) energy (kt) energy (kt) energy (kt) energy (kt)

Adalar 6.788 4.532 0 0.14 Gaziosmanpaşa 7.405 4.944 0 1.89

Arnavutköy 279.548 186.642 105.31 1.24 Güngören 4.320 2.884 0 1.34
Ataşehir 15.428 10.300 0 2.14 Kadıköy 15.428 10.300 0 2.44
Avcılar 30.855 20.601 0 1.84 Kağıthane 9.257 6.180 0 1.84
Bağcılar 14.193 9.476 0 2.47 Kartal 23.450 15.656 0 1.99
Bahçelievler 10.491 7.004 0 3.37 Küçükçekmece 27.153 18.129 0 3.94
Bakırköy 17.896 11.948 0 1.22 Maltepe 32.706 21.837 0 2.11
Başakşehir 66.030 44.085 0 2.56 Pendik 117.250 78.282 0 3.04
Bayrampaşa 5.554 3.708 0 1.48 Sancaktepe 38.877 25.957 0 1.93
Beşiktaş 11.108 7.416 0 1.23 Sarıyer 109.227 72.926 126.88 1.95
Beykoz 191.302 127.724 142.74 1.73 Silivri 529.474 353.507 0 1.22
Beylikdüzü 24.067 16.068 0 1.56 Sultanbeyli 17.896 11.948 0 1.58
Beyoğlu 5.554 3.708 0 1.40 Sultangazi 22.833 15.244 0 2.23
Büyükçekmece 106.759 71.278 0 1.38 Şile 493.682 329.610 372.71 0.42
Çatalca 704.732 470.518 317.20 0.43 Şişli 6.171 4.120 0 1.59
Çekmeköy 93.800 62.626 0 1.27 Tuzla 85.160 56.858 0 1.43
Esenler 11.725 7.828 0 1.70 Ümraniye 28.387 18.953 0 3.20
Esenyurt 26.535 17.717 0 4.66 Üsküdar 21.599 14.420 0 2.53
Eyüpsultan 140.700 93.939 134.81 1.82 Zeytinburnu 7.405 4.944 0 1.60
Fatih 9.257 6.180 0 2.35 Total 3370 2250 1199.66 74.26

Directorate of Meteorology (General Directorate of Meteorology, 2022).
For biomass data, all data is collected from the Ministry of Energy and
Natural Resources (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 2022) and
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (Istanbul Metropolitan Municipal­
ity, 2022). Animal waste, agricultural waste, forestry waste, and
municipal, and nonchemical industrial waste are considered for the
incineration and biometanization processes. Geothermal energy is
exceptionally low around Istanbul and has little to nothing potential.
Partial power generation is obtained by using Rankine and Organic
Rankine Cycles to exploit sources with temperatures between 85.50◦ C
and 114.4◦ C (Coskun et al., 2011). Geothermal data is collected from the
General Directorate of Mineral Exploration and Research Maps
Department, the geothermal division (General Directorate of Mineral
Exploration and Research, 2022). There are multiple dams in Istanbul.
However, the water flow and height of these dams are not capable of
producing energy. Instead, these dams are used for irrigation and
providing drinking water. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of the production
and storage of green hydrogen production from renewable resources
using electrolyser for Istanbul.
3. Results and discussion
For every district in Istanbul, urban areas, industrial zones, forests,
agricultural areas, historical areas, and natural parks were reduced from
the total area. Because of the rich history and memorable buildings and
spots of the city and in order to preserve its silhouette, 10% of the
rooftops are considered for installing photovoltaic panels. For offshore
applications, naval routes, transportation corridors, and private areas
are considered. Data is taken from the Ministry of National Defense
(Ministry of National Defence, 2022). Borders between districts are not
sharp and very close. Due to this fact, geothermal and undersea current
applications are hard to separate between zones. Due to the lack of
geothermal potential for most of the districts, Fig. 2 shows their po­
tential based on solar, wind, biomass, and wave energy potential.
Meanwhile, the obtainable geothermal and undersea current potentials
are considered in the total values for all districts of Istanbul. For biomass
potential, municipal, animal, forestry, and agricultural waste are
considered. According to the Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT),
daily wastewater production per person is 248 L/person-day (Turkish
Statistical Institute, 2022). With the use of proper treatment plants, this
waste can be used as clean water in the electrolysis process.
It is important to note that the present paper originally did not aim to
study any specific offtaking potential which is really coming down to an
offtake agreement that is considered as an arrangement made between a
producer and a buyer to purchase or sell portions of the producer’s
upcoming goods (in this case it is hydrogen). Such a thing is normally
negotiated before the construction of a production facility to secure a
market and revenue stream for its future output (hydrogen in this case).
It is also known that the offtake agreements are very specific and typi­
cally used to help the selling company acquire project financing for
future construction, expansion projects, or new equipment through the
promise of future income and proof of existing demand for the goods
(hydrogen in this case). There are three key points to know as follows:
(i) Such an offtake agreement is recognized as an agreement to buy
or sell, in advance, some of the hydrogen which will potentially
be produced have not yet been made. This will be a starting point
and make it easier for hydrogen producers to obtain financing.
(ii) Such an offtake agreement may be negotiated far in advance,
often prior to construction of hydrogen production facilities and
before even the actual production has started.
(iii) Such an offtake agreement may help buyers lock in a price and
guarantee the supply of hydrogen produced in certain specific
capacities of the future demand.
It is really clear that such an offtaking process and potential agree­
ment is very critical in building such hydrogen production facilities,
identify the potential customers, sign the offtake agreements with such
potential customers for a specific price per kilogram or ton of hydrogen
produced.
Since this particular paper considers only studying the hydrogen
production potential in Istanbul by utilizing all potentially available
renewable energy resources and sectoral wastes available at this stage
for clean (green) hydrogen production. Although studying the hydrogen
market development and hydrogen logistics as well as hydrogen trade is
of paramount importance, it is not really our goal to consider it in this
paper. Studying such aspects, including offtaking potentials and offtake
agreements with potential clients requires specific expertise which is not
currently available in the team. It then requires additional team mem­
bers from business school and industrial engineering to study those as­
pects under various cases and scenarios which will be made in a future
study. We really appreciate the reviewer’s point on offtaking potential
and agreements which are critical subjects about hydrogen sector
development.

5
I. Dincer et al.
Fig. 3. Distribution of renewable resources for hydrogen production potential
using alkaline electrolyser for Istanbul.
Fig. 4. Top five districts for green hydrogen production potential using alkaline
electrolyser.
Going back to the analysis and assessment, the geothermal and un­
derwater current potential is added to the total hydrogen production
value. Table 2 lists the hydrogen production potentials from various
renewable energy sources for districts in the city.
Based on the obtained results, an illustrated map is created. There are
39 different districts in Istanbul. Fig. 2 shows the green hydrogen pro­
duction from renewable sources using electrolyser. Each district can
take advantage of solar and wind energy. Colors represent hydrogen
production potential, ranging from grey to dark red. As it can be seen
from the map, rural districts with more space have higher hydrogen
production potential than others. This is due to lower population in
these regions. In addition, there are fewer household areas and more
industrial zones, and a lot of vacant space.
There are six different renewable sources used for hydrogen pro­
duction potential. Solar energy and its offshore applications, wind en­
ergy and its offshore applications, wave, biomass, geothermal, and
undersea current energies with the potential of 3370 kt, 2250 kt,
1199.66 kt, 74.56 kt, 5.26 kt, and 0.456 kt, respectively. The Black Sea
side of Istanbul is windy, and hence there are strong currents. Thanks to
this, the north shores of the city and Bosporus can take advantage of
wave energy using Pelamis wave energy converters. However, due to
high naval and touristic traffic, the Marmara Seaside is not suitable for
solar offshore, and wave applications. Fig. 3 shows the distribution of
renewable resources for hydrogen production potential using alkaline
electrolyser for Istanbul.
Fig. 4 lists the top five districts for green hydrogen production po­
tential from renewable resources. These districts are not in the center of
the city also known as old Istanbul. These districts have less population
than others and there are large, empty, usable areas for solar panel and
6
Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154
wind turbine installation. Also, other than Silivri, four top zones have a
border with the Black Sea. Strong winds and currents provide additional
energy to production potential. The top five districts for green hydrogen
production potential are Çatalca, Şile, Silivri, Arnavutkoy, and Beykoz
with the production capacities of 1492.88, 1196.43, 1122.03, 572.74,
and 463.5 kt, respectively.
If each renewable resource is investigated for each district, generally
Çatalca, Silivri, şile, Arnavutköy, and Beykoz will be on top of that list
for almost every category. First, these districts have less population
density than others do. Urban areas are scattered and there is a lot of
available space. Secondly, these districts are far from the old, crowded
city center and most of the nature of these zones is still untouched. For
solar energy, each solar radiation per meter square per year value is
taken from Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Nel Hydrogen
Atmospheric Alkaline Electrolyser Specification Brochure, 2022). With
the help of a proper PV panel setup, the top five districts for hydrogen
production from solar energy would be Çatalca, Silivri, Şile,
Arnavutköy, and Beykoz with 704.73, 529.47, 493.68, 279.54, and
191.3 kt respectively.
According to the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, the
average wind speed for Istanbul is 5.79 m/s (Ministry of Energy and
Natural Resources, 2022). If the wind speed, direction, and capacity
factor maps are considered, windy regions of the city are mainly north
and northeast sides. Also, strong winds and currents are coming from the
Black Sea through Bosporus. Similar rationality is valid for wind energy
in these regions, plus strong winds around the north side, which make it
more suitable for green hydrogen production. Çatalca, Silivri, Şile,
Arnavutköy, and Beykoz have the production potential of 470.51, 353.5,
329.61, 186.64, and 127.72 kt, respectively.
Note that Istanbul is surrounded by sea from North and South,
however, the Marmara Sea, which belongs to the south side of the city is
an inner sea, and its wave speed, height, and underwater current speed
are not strong enough to be employed as a noticeable energy source for
electricity generation. In addition, there is a large amount of naval
traffic, and the sea surface is not applicable for offshore applications. On
the North side of the city, the Black Sea is known for its storms, harsh
weather, strong waves, and currents. Therefore, only the Northern
shores of Istanbul are considered for the wave energy. Further to note
that wavelength, speed, and height values are taken from General
Directorate of Meteorology (General Directorate of Meteorology, 2022).
The top five districts for hydrogen production from wave energy are Şile,
Çatalca, Beykoz, Eyüpsultan, and Sarıyer with 372.71, 317.2, 142.74,
134.81, and 126.88 kt, respectively.
Regarding the biomass energy, Istanbul is the most crowded city in
Turkey and leads the country with municipal waste production. There
are already three installed power plants using landfill gases, bio­
metanization, and incineration, annually producing 620,000 GWh,
235,000 GWh, and 9,000 GWh electricity, respectively (Istanbul
Metropolitan Municipality, 2022). This power is enough to supply over
1.2 million people. Using animal, agricultural, forestry and municipal
waste hydrogen production potential for each different district can be
calculated (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, 2022). Municipal
waste value for each district is taken from Istanbul Metropolitan Mu­
nicipality Open Data Portal (Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, 2022).
Fig. 8 demonstrates the top five districts for hydrogen production from
biomass energy. Esenyurt, Küçükçekmece, Bahçelievler, Umraniye, and
Pendik are listed as top five districts with 4.66, 3.94, 3.37, 3.2, and 3.04
kt, respectively.
The system dynamics (SD) models can be used to anticipate the
nonlinear behavior of transportation in Istanbul. The results of such a
modeling predict that motorized passenger transportation section will
generate up to 807 kg CO2 per capita by 2025 (Batur et al., 2019). The
city population is also expected to surpass 17 million by 2025 (Turkish
Statistical Institute, 2022). Once an electrified transportation system is
used in Istanbul, and if the used electric is considered green in this
scenario, there will be 13.719 million tons annual CO2 emission
I. Dincer et al.
reduction by using green hydrogen in Istanbul.
The unit energy gain (UEG) is calculated based on the excess energy
produced from hydrogen. After providing electricity to the city for the
required demand, surplus produced hydrogen is used in the fuel cell to
produce electricity. Calculations are based on the assumption that the
hydrogen-air mix is used in the fuel cell with a 70% efficiency (Haseli,
2018). In order to create a more realistic approach, peak industry and
households power demands are considered. To produce one kg of
hydrogen, required energy is 49.6 kWh, which corresponds to 0.182
$/kWh (Turkish Electricity Distribution Corporation (TEDAS), 2022).
For the calculations, US Dollar-Turkish lira exchange rate is taken to be
15 (so US$1 is equivalent to TL 15) (Central Bank of the Republic of
Turkey, 2022). The energy consumption per unit kg of hydrogen is
multiplied by the per-unit energy charge rate (UECR) to determine the
energy gain per unit kg of hydrogen as follows:
[ ]
US$
UEG = 49.6 ∗ UECR (5)
kgH2
It is a significant finding to state that Istanbul’s green hydrogen
production potential from renewable energy using alkaline electrolyser
is 7.96 Mt. Istanbul’s annual electricity consumption is 38.49 TWh,
which is equal to 0.824 Mt hydrogen. Ideally, 117,650 kJ energy is
required to produce 1 kg hydrogen in the electrolysis process (for
example, see ref. Dincer and Ishaq, 2022). For this conversion, it is
assumed electricity produced by renewable energy is used as a power
source for a commercial type of electrolyser, which explained previ­
ously. The produced hydrogen may then be used in various sectors
including transportation, industrial, residential, commercial, public,
agricultural and utility in a most diverse manner. It is important to
consider the economic value of the hydrogen produced potentially in
Istanbul. This may come out to be over 100 billion US$ with a price of
$13/kg currently considered in various parts of the world, including a
new hydrogen station which has just opened in California, USA – and the
price of hydrogen is $13.14 per kilogram (Fuelcell Works Website,
2022). This value can become 23.88 billion US$ with a targeted price of
$3/kg of hydrogen, respectively. The available potentials for each dis­
trict are also specifically studied and discussed. It is more importantly
expected to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions by about 90% which
will be very important to achieve a carbon-neutral city and hence
country due its dominated role.
In a recent study conducted by Department of Energy (DOE) in the
United States, it is confirmed that solar Industry achieved $0.06 per kWh
for utility scale photovoltaic power three years ahead of their original
2020 cost target (Department of Energy, United States Government,
2022). For wind energy, cost is lower than the solar energy, approxi­
mately $0.01-0.02 per kWh after production tax credit for land-based
utility scale (Department of Energy, United States Government July 4,
2022). Reason for difference is electricity produced from wind turbines
are sold at fixed price for a long time (e.g., 20+ years). According to
Fig. 5. Top five districts for hydrogen production from onshore and offshore
solar energy using alkaline electrolyser.
7
Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), cost of biomass en­
ergy ranges from $0.057 per kWh for India, $0.0.62 per kWh for China,
$0.079 per kWh for Europe, and $0.097 per kWh for United States over
the last ten years however individual projects usually produce electricity
at the cost of $0.03-0.14 per kWh (International Renewable Energy
Agency, 2022). For geothermal energy cost varies between the method.
Energy cost per kWh is between $0.03 and 0.05 at geysers, however a
power plant built on top of a geothermal source would require
approximately $0.05 per kWh (Department of Energy, United States
Government, 2022). For wave and current energies, cost of marine en­
ergy technologies $0.87 per kWh for wave energy and $0.56 per kWh for
current energy (Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy, 2022). By 2035 it is expected these prices will
decrease to $0.17per kWh and $0.11per kWh, respectively (Department
of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2022).
Total cost for generating electricity from renewable resources is
approximately $1.657 per kWh according to previous collected data.
Currently, cost of producing hydrogen from renewable energies is $5 per
kg according to the Department of Energy in United States (Department
of Energy, United States Government, 2022). However, the project En­
ergy Eartshot’ first step Hydrogen Shot aims to decrease this cost by %80
to $1 per kg by 2035 (Department of Energy, United States Government,
2022).
4. Conclusions
Switching from fossil fuels to renewable energies is an unavoidable
approach to establish a sustainable society and to avoid global warming.
Turkey is one of the few lucky countries around the world retaining
different types of renewable energy resources. Due to its geopolitical
located, as a crossroad of Asia and Europe; it is a need to plan a road map
for decreasing its dependency on carbon-based fuels and making it a
sustainable and smart city. The results of current research show that
renewable energy potentials are convincing for hydrogen production
and hydrogen economy in Istanbul. The air pollution, which is primarily
caused by CO2 emission and release of greenhouse gasses, is getting
worse each and every year in Istanbul as the most populated city in
Turkey. In order to reduce these and preferably end it by 2050, some
serious steps, such green hydrogen initiatives, must be taken where
Istanbul has sufficient resources to make this transformation. The data
are taken from Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and the Turkish
Government’s official offices. Main findings of the study can be sum­
marized as follows:
• Using alkaline electrolysers the green hydrogen production potential
by considering all renewables and wastes potentially available is
estimated to be 7.96 Mt.
• Catalca, Şile, Silivri, Arnavutköy, and Beykoz are listed as districts
with the highest green hydrogen potential with 1.49 Mt, 1.19 Mt, and
1.12 Mt, 0.57 Mt, and 0.46 Mt, respectively.
• Hydrogen production potential distribution between renewable re­
sources is solar, wind, wave, biomass, geothermal, and undersea
current energies with 3370 kt, 2250 kt, 1199.66 kt, 75.56 kt, 5.26 kt,
0.456 kt, respectively.
• Top five districts for hydrogen production from solar energy are
Çatalca, Silivri, Şile, Arnavutköy, and Beykoz with 704.73, 529.47,
493.68, 279.54, and 191.3 kt respectively.
• For exploiting wind energy, Çatalca, Silivri, Şile, Arnavutköy, and
Beykoz can be listed as top five districts with potential of 470.51,
353.5, 329.61, 186.64, and 127.72 kt, respectively.
• The top five districts for hydrogen production from wave energy are
Şile, Çatalca, Beykoz, Eyüpsultan, and Sarıyer with 372.71, 317.2,
142.74, 134.81, and 126.88 kt, respectively.
• Most municipal waste producer districts with the potential to pro­
duce green hydrogen from biomass energy is Esenyurt,
I. Dincer et al.
Fig. 6. Top five districts for hydrogen production from onshore and offshore
wind energy using alkaline electrolyser.
Fig. 7. Top five districts for hydrogen production from wave energy using
alkaline electrolyser.
Fig. 8. Top five districts for hydrogen production from biomass energy using
alkaline electrolyser.
Küçükçekmece, Bahçelievler, Umraniye, and Pendik with 4.66, 3.94,
3.37, 3.2, and 3.04 kt, respectively.
• The produced hydrogen is expected to be deployed in various sectors
including transportation, industrial, residential, commercial, public,
agricultural and utility in diverse manner.
• The economic value of the hydrogen produced potentially in Istanbul
is expected to be over 100 billion US$ with a current price of $13/kg
of hydrogen and 23.88 billion US$ with a targeted price of $3/kg of
hydrogen, respectively.
8
Sustainable Cities and Society 87 (2022) 104154
• The available potentials for each district are also specifically studied
and discussed. It is more importantly expected to reduce the green­
house gas emissions by about 90% which will ve very important to
achieve a carbon-neutral city and hence country due its dominated
role.
• The selection process of photovoltaic panels, turbines, and
commercially available electrolysers is vital. For solar applications,
bi-facial PV panels with 21.5% efficiency are chosen.(Figs. 5–7)
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data are taken from official and governmental websites whose links
are provided in the references section.
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