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ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
OF THE ARABIAN GULF
SAUDI ARABIAN WATERS

Fifty Years of Scientific Research

A Publication by Saudi Aramco and King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Chief Editors
Dr. Khaled A. Al-Abdulkader1, Dr. Ronald A. Loughland1 and Dr. Mohammed A. Qurban2
Environmental Protection Department, Saudi Aramco
1

2
Center for Environment & Water, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Photography
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© 2019 Saudi Aramco & King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

All right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, except brief extracts for the purpose of review, without the prior permission in
writing of Saudi Aramco.

ISBN: 978-603-02-7862-6
DR. KHALED A. AL-ABDULKADER, DR. RONALD A. LOUGHLAND, and DR. MOHAMMED A. QURBAN

ECOSYSTEMS
AND BIODIVERSITY OF
THE ARABIAN GULF
SAUDI ARABIAN WATERS

Fifty Years of Scientific Research

 CHAPTER 3

3.1

Coastal Beach and Island Ecosystems

JEFF D. MILLER1, MILES O. HAYES2, JACXQUELINE MICHEL2, PERIYADAN K. KRISHNAKUMAR3, and RONALD A. LOUGHLAND4

Introduction
The irregular coastline of eastern Saudi Arabia extends in a northwesterly to southeasterly direction
for about 1,900 km, with a coastline from Ras al-Khafji in the north to the southern extent of the Gulf
of Salwa, including six large bays with islands. In addition, the coast of Saudi Arabia includes Ras Abu
Qumayyis, a large bay located between Qatar and United Arab Emirates (UAE).

Coastal beach ecosystems include the intertidal beach and associated dunes. These ecosystems are
dynamic because they are molded by both waves and wind into characteristic forms that change frequently
compared to other ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf. The coast supports a diverse array of dry adapted
vegetation, including 54 families containing more than 200 species near Jubail (Böer and Warnken, 1996).
The dune and beach areas provide a habitat for lizards and snakes, as well as resting and foraging habitat for
shorebirds and seabirds, and predators such as foxes. In addition, scattered mangrove forests, extensive seagrass
beds, and wide algal flats are situated along the coastal margin in the shallow, tidal areas. The nearshore tidal
flats support many invertebrates. During the high tide, fish, dugong and marine turtles, forage in the shallows
(Abuzinada and Krupp, 1994).

The coastal and coral islands of the Saudi Arabian Gulf are special ecosystems because they provide
an essential habitat for many species of plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates (Basson, et al., 1977). The
two types of islands are easily distinguished by their location and origin. Coastal islands are essentially an
extension of the coastal environment that has become disconnected from the mainland by the action of
storms and wind-driven waves. Today, some islands remain partially connected by causeways of rubble
that are exposed at low tide; whereas others are completely surrounded by cannels of water at low tide.
In contrast, coral islands are located several kilometers offshore and derived from the coral reefs on which
they are located (Basson, et al., 1977).

Methods
Much of the information presented in this chapter was derived from field surveys conducted
along the shoreline of Saudi Arabia after the 1991 Gulf oil spill as part of three programs: the 1992
and 1993 Mt. Mitchell surveys (Hayes, et al., 1993; Michel, et al., 1994); the Oiled Shoreline Survey
1
Biological Research and Education Consultants, 446 Dearborn Ave., Missoula, MT, 59801, USA. Email: mjmillerer@gmail.com.
2
Research Planning Inc., 1121 Park Street, Columbia, SC 29201, USA.
3
Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
4
Saudi Aramco, Environment Protection Department, Dhahran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

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conducted from September 2002 to March 2003 as part of the Presidency for Meteorology and
Environment studies to support claims for environmental damages submitted to the United Nations
Compensation Commission (KFUPM/RI, 2003a); and the Saudi Coastal Remediation Program
sponsored by the United Nations Compensation Commission and conducted for the Presidency
of Meteorology and Environment from 2009-2013. The Mt. Mitchell surveys included 36 transects
along which the topographic profile, sediment type, extent of oiling and other information were
recorded. The Oiled Shoreline Survey consisted of transects perpendicular to the shoreline at 250
m spacing from the Kuwaiti border to Abu ‘Ali Island along which the habitat type, sediment
type, extent of oiling, and other information were recorded (KFUPM/RI, 2003b; Bejarano and
Michel, 2010).

Environmental Characteristics (Abiotic)

The abiotic characteristics of an ecosystem form the environment in which the plants and animals exist.
The typical seasonal and annual cycles are within the tolerance limits of the organisms but atypical extremes
may cause population stress through mortality of at least some individuals. The major environmental
characteristics include temperature, rainfall, wind, and along the coastal margin, tides. These in turn affect
water chemistry and the processes that shape the dune, beach, and nearshore habitats (see Chapter 2 for
details).

Temperature
Temperature extremes, wind, (Wright, 1974; Hughes and Hunter, 1979) and evaporation rates (Sugden,
1963; Hunter, 1982) are the principle climatic variables that influence the life on the coast and in the
shallow, tidal areas. Mean maximum air temperatures may exceed 35.6 °C during July (Rehman, 2010).
Water temperatures in the Gulf may exceed 33 °C in August and may drop below 15° C in February
(KFUPM/RI, 2003).

Winds
The prevailing wind is from the North with strong northwesterly winds that are slightly stronger and
drier in winter (Thoppil and Hogan, 2010b). The winds drive the surface currents (Thoppil and Hogan,
2010b); as a result, the exposed, northern facing beaches receive most of the wave energy.

Salinity
Salinity fluctuates seasonally as a result of the temperatures, shallow water, and wind patterns along the
coast (KFUPM/RI, 2003). Evaporation is high in summer but greatest in winter (KFUPM/RI, 2003). In
shallow coastal bays where evaporation is high (e.g., in the Gulf of Salwa), salinity values may exceed 60 to
70 parts per thousand (Basson, et al., 1977; Jones, et al., 1978; Qurban, et al., 2011).

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Rainfall Patterns
The pattern of rainfall over the Arabian Peninsula is highly variable (Almazroui, et al., 2012;
Hasanean and Almazroui, 2015). The mean rainfall along the East Coast is 50 mm/year, with most
rain falling in the winter. Between the border with Kuwait and the area of Manifa, the annual rainfall
is typically between 100 mm and 200 mm. Southward from the vicinity of Manifa to approximately
one-half of the way between Dammam and Salwa annual rainfall is reduced to between 50 mm and
100 mm. From there to Salwa, and including the area of Ras Abu Qumayyis, the annual rainfall is less
than 50 mm.

Tides
Tides and the associated tide generated currents are the most important dynamic physical process
affecting sediment distribution and transportation along the shoreline. The tides are surprisingly complex
in the Arabian Gulf (Defense Mapping Agency USA, 1975).They are driven by two amphidromic systems,
the margins of which meet in the study area (Lardner, et al., 1982). From one spring tide to the next, the
tides commonly range from semidiurnal to highly mixed, and at times, approach a diurnal cycle.Therefore,
complicated patterns of high and low tides, as well as asymmetric current patterns, occur (Basson, et al.,
1977; Reynolds, 1993).

The mean tidal range decreases along the West Coast of the Gulf from 3 m at Kuwait to 1 m at Ras
Tanura, Saudi Arabia (Defense Mapping Agency USA, 1975; KFUPM/RI, 2015). Although the tidal range
of the study area typically averages around 1.5 m (KFUPM/RI, 1990d), the intertidal flats in the region are
extensive, reaching over 2 km wide in places, a phenomenon found most commonly in macrotidal areas
(tidal range greater than 4 m). The wide intertidal zone is a result of the relatively flat hinterland and the
shallow character of the adjacent Gulf seafloor.

Physical Processes Affecting Coastal Beach Ecosystems

Neelamani, et al. (2007, 2009) conducted the extreme wave analysis, especially for Kuwaiti territorial
waters for a total of 19 locations and for the whole Arabian Gulf. KFUPM/RI gathered wave data from
the Saudi Arabian Gulf coast based on field studies (KFUPM/RI, 2008, 2009a to 2009d, 2010a to 2010f).

The documented maximum heights of breaking waves are less than 1 m. Wave heights increase to the
south along the Saudi Arabian Coast as the fetch in a northwesterly direction increases. The island of Abu
‘Ali has an open fetch of 250 km to the north. Breaker heights greater than 1 m should be common on the
headlands in the study area. Subsequently, breaking waves greater than about 60 cm in height were rarely
observed during field work from September 2002 to March 2003 (RPI, 2003). During the late spring and
summer months, when strong shamal winds usually occur, the waves also tend to be consistently larger,
although according to Reynolds (2002), “The winter shamal occasionally sets in abruptly with great force
and speed above 10 m/s, and gale force shamals occur once or twice each winter and bring the strongest
winds and waves of the season.” Our detailed field surveys were carried out between late September
2002 and early March 2003. Wave studies at Zuluf, northwest of Tanajib, from May 1987 to August 1988

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reported significant wave heights of 0.14 m to 1.8 m, with the highest waves occurring in the winter
(KFUPM/RI, 2006).

There is significant geomorphic evidence to suggest a dominant northwest-to-southeast longshore

sediment transport direction along the Saudi Arabian coast. There are a number of major depositional
headlands, some of which are cuspate spits that have associated sand spits that trail off to the southeast.
The cuspate spit headlands near the Kuwaiti border are more symmetrical than the ones to the south
and are separated by sandy arcuate embayments, which is a reflection of the more limited fetch from the
north along the Kuwaiti shoreline. This change in the cuspate’s spit shapes and orientations are illustrated
in Figure 3.1. Numerous other features along the shoreline, such as oblique nearshore bars, rhythmic
topography, natural groins, and other sedimentation patterns (e.g., subtidal sand flats with abundant large
sand waves that project to the east and southeast away from the onshore spits) also reflect the dominant
southeasterly longshore sediment transport direction.

Sand Beach Morphology

Coastal biologists have long used the concept of exposure to differentiate among coastal habitats, a
classic reference being Ricketts, et al. (1985). Also, exposure is used as a means of delineating the sensitivity
of coastal habitats to oil pollution, with the most exposed habitats being least sensitive and the most
sheltered being most sensitive (Hayes, et al., 1980).

The most prominent processes that significantly affect beach morphology are waves and the currents
along with tides. These hydrodynamic processes cause cyclical alterations of natural coastal features. Sea
current and wave regimes may rework nearshore sediment, often with serious biological consequences.
KFUPM/RI (2013) used field data from four coastal locations in Saudi Waters of Arabian Gulf to delineate
the wave climate of the area (Figure 3.2). They noticed a relatively weak wave nature at all the stations
surveyed with occasional high waves. The intermittent stronger waves noticed were associated with the
strong northwesterly Shamal wind. The measured maximum wave height was between 90 cm and 172 cm
at these stations

Outer Exposed Sand Beaches

Exposed sand beaches occur along the outer coast (with open fetch distances measured in tens of
kilometers) and extend along 141 km of the shoreline, representing 22% of all sand beaches between the
Kuwait border and Abu ‘Ali. Although wave data for these areas are lacking, the beaches are clearly exposed
to frequent episodes of intense wave action, judging from the relatively large size of the beach berms, the
excellent sorting of the sediments, and the presence of erosional and depositional features on the beaches.
Examples of aerial views of these beaches are given in Figure 3.3.

A beach develops where sediment particles are available and waves are large enough to mold the
sediments into a depositional berm. The exposed, outer sand beaches of the study area typically are made
up of three basic morphological components (Hayes and Michel, 2014):

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FIGURE 3.1. The major headlands, mostly cuspate spits, along the Arabian Gulf coasts of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia,
illustrating the shift from perpendicular to southerly bending orientations of the spits under the influence of
waves from the north generated by shamal winds. Note the strong northwesterly wind directions for the wind
rises at Mina al-Ahmadi, Kuwait and Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia.

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FIGURE 3.2. Measured maximum wave height at four stations for Saudi waters of the Arabian Gulf (KFUPM/RI, 2013).

• Berm top: A landward sloping (0° to 5°), smooth surface that is washed over during high spring tides and
during periods of heavy wave activity.
• Beach face: The seaward sloping (3° to 12°), smooth face of the berm that is subject to the uprush and
backwash of the waves at mid- to high tide levels.
• Low tide terrace: A gently sloping (1° to 3°) surface exposed at low tide that may contain complex sandbar
systems. This surface merges almost imperceptibly into a wider sandy tidal flat in many locations.

These components of exposed sand beaches are illustrated by the generalized topographic cross-section
given in Figure 3.4. Such beaches are characterized by episodes of both erosion and deposition. During
periods of high wave activity, sandy sediments deposited on the berm during periods of lesser waves are
eroded off the berm and deposited on the offshore tidal flat or perhaps even into the subtidal area further
offshore. The sand thereby displaced offshore of the high tide area is returned during calmer weather in
the form of intertidal bars (Figure 3.5). The sediments on these beaches are comprised predominantly of
quartz, carbonate shells, and coral fragments with a mean grain size of 0.7 mm and a high degree of sorting.

There are limited data available on temporal patterns of beach erosion and deposition on these exposed
sand beaches. Hayes, et al. (1993a) estimated that 60% of the oil deposited on the outer beaches north
of Ras al-Khair as a result of the 1991 Gulf oil spill had been eroded one year after the spill, indicating
seasonal patterns in sediment reworking by wave action. As part of the Oiled Shoreline Survey conducted
for the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment, RPI (2003) conducted transects perpendicular to
the shoreline at 250 m spacing from the Kuwaiti border to Abu ‘Ali Island. Of the 564 transects classified

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FIGURE 3.3. Aerial views of exposed outer sand beaches at (a) Ras al-Mish’ab, and (b) Ras al-Khair. Note the large, well-
developed berms and abundant sandy sediments. Both views look north, the direction from which the sediments
were being transported along the shore

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 T H E N AT U R A L E C O S Y S T E M S O F T H E W E S T E R N A R A B I A N G U L F

FIGURE 3.4. Generalized topographic profile of the exposed outer sand beaches and sand tidal flat during an episode of
deposition on the beach. The dashed line shows the surface left after erosion of the berm during periods of
exceptionally high wave activity. Also shown are geomorphic terms and characteristic species (RPI, 2003).

as exposed outer sand beaches, 280 (50%) contained no visible oil as of the fall and winter of 2002/2003.
Based on a study of satellite imagery and shoreline surveys conducted by MEPA (now PME) (1991), most
of these beaches were oiled during the 1991 Gulf oil spill. Therefore, it is assumed that in the areas that
contained no visibly oiled sediments, the oiled sediment has been removed by wave action, a process that
was observed during the 1992 and 1993 Mt. Mitchell surveys (Hayes, et al., 1993a; Michel, et al., 1994).

Though depositional patterns on these beaches were not studied in detail during the 2002-2003
surveys conducted by RPI (2003), at least half of them appeared to be undergoing long-term accretion,
which had led to burial along transects where the oiled sediment was not eroded away within a few years
after the spill. As noted earlier, the accretion of the beach is accomplished by the welding of intertidal
bars onto the beach face/berm areas in the upper intertidal zone. This process is aided by the progressive
alongshore migration of massive wedges of sand called rhythmic topography, an example of which is
pictured in Figure 3.5a. An aerial view of a small shoreline rhythm and a welding intertidal bar is shown in
Figure 3.5b. In places, the accretion rates were quite impressive, with up to 30 m of accretion.

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FIGURE 3.5. Zones of high rates of beach accretion on exposed outer sand beaches. (a) Large-scale rhythmic topography that
was slowly migrating in a southerly direction, adding large volumes of sand to the upper beach in the process
(located !15 km north of Ras al-Khair, near Ras al-Ghar). (b) Smaller shoreline rhythm located !11 km
north of Ras al-Khair. Note the large intertidal bar in the process of welding to the beach (lower left).

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Moderately Exposed Sand Beaches

Moderately exposed sand beaches occur mostly along the major bays and extend along 406 km of
the shoreline, representing 78% of all sand beaches from the Kuwaiti border to Abu ‘Ali. They are clearly
exposed to less frequent episodes of intense wave action than the outer exposed sand beaches, judging from
the relatively smaller size of the beach berms and the absence of clear-cut erosional/depositional features
on the beaches. Ground views of two of these beaches are shown in Figure 3.6a and 3.6b. They are often
fronted by wide tidal flats. A general model of this beach type is given in Figure 3.7.

The mean grain size is 0.7 mm, or medium-grained sand, the same as the exposed outer sand beaches
(Hayes, et al., 1993). However, the sand on the moderately exposed sand beaches is less well sorted, with a
sorting coefficient of almost 6, compared to 3.5 for the exposed sand beaches. The mean grain size of the
sand on all sand beaches in this area is similar because the sand is derived from the same sources, and wind-
blown sand is a major contributor. The moderately exposed sand beaches have poorer sorting because the
finer grained sediments are not as frequently winnowed by large waves.

These beaches have moderate wave action because of the limited fetch inside the bay and the presence
of wide tidal flats; therefore, sediment reworking rates are slower. In comparison to the exposed outer
sand beaches, only 41% were free of visibly oiled sediments 12 years after the Gulf oil spill (RPI, 2003).
Compare Figures 3.3 and 3.7 in terms of the amount of each habitat with no oil observed. Also, because
of the lower wave energy, infauna can be more common. As a result, oiled burrows represented nearly 16%
of the oiled sediments (compared to 0.2% on exposed sand beaches).

Coastal Islands
The irregular coastal line has several large bays that contain the majority of the nearshore islands
(Miller, 2011a). Only a few coastal islands are not associated with bays and these form outer margins of
bays. All of the coastal islands are low and flat. A few islands have extensive development (e.g., Abu ‘Ali,
Tarut), while most do not.

Between Ras al-Khafji and Ras al-Safaniyah, the only nearshore islands occur at Ras al-Mish’ab, where
an ancient headland has become disconnected from the mainland. The triangular island (Figure 3.8a)
has two extended arms reaching toward the coast and forming a shallow tidal bay; a third arm extends
southeastward into the Gulf. During storms, the lower portions of the arms are washed over by the
waves. The beaches surrounding the main island change shape during the seasonal shift in wind direction.
Another coastal island (Figure 3.8a) occurs just offshore of the town of Al-Mish’ab. The connection to
the mainland has been augmented by extensive infill to form a connected peninsula, which disrupts the
nearshore wave action.

An example of the process of formation of coastal islands occurs at Ras al-Safaniyah, where part of
the peninsula has nearly eroded through from the Gulf side to connect with the inner bay (Figure 3.8b).
The long thin arm of the peninsula could become an adjacent island when sea level rises and storminess
increases, as is predicted to occur as a consequence of global warming (IPCC, 2007).

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FIGURE 3.6. Ground views of two moderately exposed sand beaches.

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FIGURE 3.7. Generalized topographic profile of two habitat types: moderately exposed sand beach and sandy tidal flat. Shown
are geomorphic terms and characteristic species (RPI, 2003).

Two large islands are situated in the bay to the south of Ras al-Khair (Figure 3.8c). The smaller one
is approximately 7.5 km in circumference and the other is approximately 10.5 km in circumference. The
smaller one is positioned within the inner bay and the larger one forms a barrier to the bay that likely
follows along the ancient coastline. Both islands show the classic disconnect of a water filled channel that
separates them from the mainland by only a short distance at low tide.

The coastal embayment south of Ras al-Tanajib is convoluted by long, southward projecting peninsulas.
This bay does not contain coastal islands but may in the future as sea levels rise. Several sand bars occur in
the shallow bay.

To the north of Abu ‘Ali Island and extending from Ras al-Khair through Dauhat al-Musallamiya and
Dauhat ad-Dafi to the northern shore of Abu ‘Ali is a large bay (Figure 3.8d). This area contains five large
(over 5 km in length) islands, several small islands, and many sand banks that are exposed during low tide.
The islands of the bay are separated from the mainland by relatively narrow waterways and are essentially
extensions of the mainland environment. The central areas of the sandy islands are vegetated with species

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FIGURE 3.8. Coastal islands just offshore of (a) Ras al-Mish’ab (b) Ras al-Safaniyah (c) Dauhat Al Khair (d) Dauhat al-
Musallamiya and Dauhat ad-Dafi.

of grasses and herbs that are found on the adjacent mainland.The bay contains extensive intertidal mud flats
that are often covered with blue-green algal mats and extensive seagrass beds in some subtidal areas. Several
areas of mangroves (Avicennia marina) grow along the margins of the islands and coast. Because the bay
opens to the north, the area and the contained islands were heavily polluted by oil released during the 1991
Gulf War.

Abu ‘Ali and the Batima Islands extend from the mainland into the Gulf and form the northern
boundary of Dauhat Abu ‘Ali (Figure 3.9a).The two islands are connected to the mainland by a permanent
causeway.The northward facing shore of Abu ‘Ali is exposed to storm action and accumulates considerable
debris, decaying seagrass, and algae. The northern and western coasts were impacted severely by the 1991
Gulf oil spill. Parts of the exposed northern coastal margin have been altered by the addition of concrete
armament to reduce erosion; whereas, less exposed areas (to the west and south, including part of Batima
Island) have open beaches. The sandy central areas of the islands are vegetated with grasses and herbs,
which are also found on the nearby mainland. Although there are no coastal islands within the bay, a
causeway intrudes into Dauhat Abu ‘Ali from the southwest and impacts the flow of water and sedimentation
in the bay.

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a b

c d

FIGURE 3.9. Coastal islands just of (a) Abu ‘Ali and Al Butinah Islands (b) Tarut Bay (c) Gulf of Salwa (d) Ras abu
Qamees area.

Tarut Bay is formed by the southeasterly directed peninsula of Ras Tanura (Figure 3.9b). The bay
contains Tarut Island, Za’l Island, and several smaller islands, in addition to many sand banks that are
exposed during low tide. Tarut Island has been inhabited for several hundred years and is connected to the
mainland by a causeway that limits circulation in the bay. The Qatif oasis on the island has large areas of
palm groves and gardens from which the bay receives sewage effluent and agricultural runoff. Za’l Island is
uninhabited but is used as a campsite by fishermen, at least occasionally.Vegetation on Za’l Island is sparse
and virtually is the same as the nearby mainland.

The coast between Tarut Island and Dawhat Zalum, located to the south of al-Khobar, contains no
nearshore islands; however, the Gulf of Salwa contains several large islands. The most notable islands are
Judhaim, Samamik and Zakhnuniyah. One island, Unaibir, is composed of fossil coral rock. A short distance
to the south of al-Uqayr is an embayment that opens to the northwest (Figure 3.9c). It is formed by a long,
relatively narrow island situated at the end of a northwestward projecting peninsula.The sparsely vegetated
areas support shrubs, grasses, and herbs, as does the adjacent mainland. The island beaches are low crested
and not backed by sabkhas (salt flats). The outer and northern facing beaches of the island accumulate
flotsam and jetsam. Jazirat as-Samamik is located on the Gulf of Salwa side of the peninsula. The axis of

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its long, narrow shape extends roughly parallel to the coast; it is separated from the coast by a relatively
narrow strait of deep water. It is a low, sparsely vegetated island without freshwater. The northerly facing
beaches accumulate wind and current driven debris. The substrate of the bay is tidal mud flats and muddy
sand that supports seagrass.

The Ras Abu Qumayyis area is a large bay in the corner of the coastline between Qatar and the UAE on the
eastern side of the main Qatari peninsula and faces the southern Gulf (Figure 3.9d). One large island and several
small islands extend from the eastern peninsula into the mouth of the bay. The outer part of the major peninsula
is highly convoluted by raised headlands. Crescent-shaped, sandy beaches have formed at the back of shallow bays
between the headlands. The raised headlands provide a vertical component (2 m to 4 m) to the habitat that does
not occur along the northern Gulf beaches. Most of the crescent beaches have large accumulations of debris.
The northwestern side of the major peninsula is separated from Qatar by a narrow strait that leads into a shallow
embayment. In this area, some of the rocky material has become detached from the mainland to form small
rocky islands, at least at high tide. The substrate of the bay is subtidal and tidal mud flats and sand that support
algae and seagrass; large areas are exposed during low tides as a result of the gentle slope of the bottom.
Sandy beaches extend along the southern portion of the bay and the eastward facing side of the major
peninsula, sometimes backed by extensive sabkha; the beaches have a low crest and are backed by salt
tolerant vegetation, similar to beaches in the northern Gulf.

Coral Islands
Six coral islands are located between 35 km and 125 km from the mainland coast of Saudi Arabia
(Figure 3.10; Table 3.1). Each of the islands sits on the southern margin of an extensive, shallow reef flat
that is exposed during the neap tides (Basson, et al., 1977; IUCN/MEPA, 1987) and is anchored by beach
rock formed through multiple episodes of sediment cementation and exposure. Each island has a central
sand beach platform; none has freshwater. The ends of the islands change shape with the seasonal changes
in wind and current direction. Most of the islands are low, flat and oblong with the exceptions of Juraid
(teardrop shaped), Karyan (mostly circular) and Harqus (crescent-shaped). The larger islands have wider
beaches and dense vegetation cover of Suaeda vermiculata and Salsola baryosma; in addition, Mesembryanthemum
nudiflorum is present following rainfall.

The prevailing winds and currents shape the coral reefs that support the offshore islands. Light availability
plays an important role in coral reef formation around the offshore islands. Because of the turbidity of the
water, approximately 15 m to 18 m is the depth limit for continuous coral cover (KFUPM/RI, 1994). A
total of 57 species of coral have been recorded in the Arabian Gulf, with 50 to 55 of these species present
on offshore reefs (Burchard, 1979; IUCN/UNEP, 1988). Maximum hard coral coverage (Figure 3.11),
coral fish diversity and associated fauna has been studied on Karan Island and Jana Island (Sheppard, et al.,
1992; KFUPM/RI, 2003b; KFUPM/RI, 2015).

The coral reef structure underlying each island is comprised of three major regions: reef base, reef
slope and reef platform (Basson, et al., 1977). The base region is generally dominated by specialized coral
types such as Turbinaria sp. The reef slope area is the most diverse region of the coral islands and is usually
dominated by corals such as Goniopora sp., Poites sp., Acropora sp., Montipora sp., Hydnophora sp., Turbinaria

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FIGURE 3.10. Coral Islands of the Saudi Arabian portion of the northern Arabian Gulf. The tip of Abu ‘Ali Island is shown in
the lower left.

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TABLE 3.1. Size and location of the six offshore Saudi Arabian coral islands.

Name Location Size (m) Physical Features Biological Features

Name Location Size (m) Physical Features Biological Features
Karan 27° 42’ N; 2,025 × 632 Extensively exposed rocks, and Vegetated; major turtle and bird
49° 49’ E (5.3 km cir) storm berm; profile < 3 m breeding site
Jana 27° 21’ N; 1,105 × 300 Extensively exposed rocks, and Vegetated; major turtle and bird
49° 54’ E (2.6 km cir) storm berm; profile < 3 m breeding site
Jurayd 27° 11’ N; 732 × 282 Sand and storm berm; profile Vegetated; major turtle and bird
49° 59’ E (1.8 km cir) <3m breeding site
Al-Arabiyah 27° 46’ N; 488 × 267 Storm berm; military and technical Scattered bushes; minor turtle
50° 10’ E (>1 km cir) installations; profile < 3 m and bird breeding site
Kurayn 27° 38’ N; 312 × 251 Storm berm; stable sand; profile Scattered bushes; turtle and bird
49° 49’ E (<1 km cir) <2m breeding site
Harqus 27° 56’ N; 259 × 76 Unstable sand; storm surge wash No vegetation; minor turtle and
49° 41’ E (<0.6 km cir) over; profile < 1 m bird breeding site
Modified from Basson, et al. (1977)

sp. and Acanthastrea sp. The reef slope on the northern, windward side of the reefs is more gradual; whereas
the slope on the leeward side is typically steep and vertically compressed (Basson, et al., 1977). The reef
platforms of the islands are dominated by corals such as Stylophora sp., Cyphastrea sp., Poites sp., Platygryra
sp., and seasonal occurrence of few coralline algae (Basson, et al., 1977). During the winter season, the reef
platforms are covered with coralline algae, i.e., Pocockiella sp., Porolithon sp., and Dictyota sp.

FIGURE 3.11. Mean percent cover of the hard coral at different depths on Karan, Jana and Jurayd Islands (error bars
represent standard errors) reported during 2002–2003. (Modified from KFUPM/RI, 2003).

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Karan Island is the largest of the offshore coral cays (approx. 128 hectares (h)) (Figure 3.12a). Exposed
beach rock extends along the northern side, as well as along about half of the southern side.Two long, parallel,
spines of rock extend under the island from one end of to the other on the long axis.The exposed ends form
small bays that change in size throughout the year as the windblown currents move the sand. Because the
northern side of the island is exposed to the prevailing winds and waves, it has accumulated a heavy load of
debris on the stand line above the beach rock; the southern side has less debris. Tar has accumulated on the
beach rock on the northern side of the island. The middle portion of the island is covered by low shrubs
(Suaeda vermiculata and Salsola baryosma), less than 1 m tall; in addition, Mesembryanthemum nudiflorum is evident
after rains.The unvegetated outer margin of the island, where turtles and some birds nest, varies in width from
a few meters wide on the eastern side to about 50 m wide on the southwestern portion.

Jana Island is the second largest of the coral islands (approx. 33 h) (Figure 3.12b). Like Karan Island,
the northern side of Jana exhibits exposed beach rock along the intertidal zone. The northern side of the
island accumulates a heavy load of debris and tar blown in by the wind. The middle portion of the island
is covered by low shrubs (Suaeda vermiculata and Salsola baryosma). Turtle nesting keeps the outer margin of
the island free of vegetation.

Jurayd Island is the third largest of the Saudi Arabian Gulf territory islands (approx. 20 h) (Figure
3.12c). It is similar to the two largest islands but no exposed beach rock surrounds it.The central portion of
the island is covered with shrubs (Suaeda vermiculata and Salsola baryosma). As the seasonal currents change,
the southern arm of sand accretes back and forth, sometimes creating a bay. There is a large abandoned
navigation beacon standing near the middle of the island.

Kurayn Island is the second smallest of the coral islands (approx. 8 h); it is located on the same reef
complex as Karan Island (Figure 3.13a). There is no exposed beach rock around the island. Both Suaeda
vermiculata and Salsola baryosma shrubs occur on the island; in addition, the annual Mesembryanthemum
nudiflorum occurs on the island. It hosts both turtle and bird nesting.

Harqus Island is the smallest of the coral islands (approx. 2 h) (Figure 3.13b). It is a small, unvegetated cay
that is washed over by storm tides. Birds often stop to rest on Harqus, and occasionally, they remain to nest.
Turtles, too, may attempt to nest on Harqus but for both groups, the island is not typically suitable for nesting.

Al-Arabiyah is located about 125 km offshore and supports a Coast Guard station (Figure 3.13c). The
13 hectare island is roughly circular and has a limited sandy beach along the southern side; the remainder of
the island has raised beach rock cliffs and a rocky rough shoreline. The island has been highly modified to
support the Coast Guard station, including the construction of a small, sheltered port on the southern side.
The constant presence of people and the movement of supplies over the years have reduced the presence
of wildlife on the island.

Biotic Characteristics
The principle climatic variables that influence the life on the islands are the same ones that dominate
the region: extreme temperature, northwesterly winds, and evaporation (Wright, 1974; Hughes and Hunter,

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FIGURE 3.12. (a) Google satellite image and aerial photo of Karan Island, (b) Google satellite image and aerial photo of Jana
Island, (c) Google satellite image and aerial photo of Jurayd Island.

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FIGURE 3.13. (a) Google satellite image and aerial photo of Karan Island, (b) Google satellite image and aerial photo of
Harqus Island, (c) Google satellite image and aerial photo of Arabiyah Island.

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1979; Sugden, 1963; Hunter, 1982). Tarut Bay and the Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary (JMWS) have
received the greatest research effort (Basson, et al., 1977; Krupp, et al., 1996; KFUPM/RI, 1990a to 1990c).
The coastal margin has been surveyed for biological resources and nearshore substrate characteristics; these
studies have emphasized the middle section of the coast but have been extended both to the north and
into the Gulf of Salwa (KFUPM/RI, 2015).

Flora of Beach, Dune, and Exposed Sand Flat Habitats

Floristically, the Gulf coast beach and dune ecosystem supports a diverse assemblage of dry adapted
vegetation, including more than 200 species representing 54 families near Jubail (Böer and Warnken, 1992,
1996), as well as scattered mangrove forests, extensive seagrass beds, and wide algal flats. Unfortunately,
reclamation projects have altered or destroyed over 40% of the intertidal areas.

The two families that are best represented in coastal areas characterized by exposed conditions and
sandy, coarse-grained substrates are Chenopodaceae and Zygophyllaceae (Youssef and Al-Fredan, 2008).
Many species in both families feature succulent leaves, and salt balance is often maintained by concentrating
salt in leaf tissue, which is then periodically shed. Two life history strategies are used by species in these
habitats (as in many arid, hot, and coastal environments in general): Therophytes, usually annual species,
survive through the harshest conditions during the year (i.e., very hot and arid summers) in the form of
seeds, as opposed to adult plants; and Chamaephytes, usually perennial species, maintain habits close to the
ground. However, elements of both of these strategies are often expressed not only in dune and exposed
sand flat vegetation, but in salt marshes and other coastal habitats, as well.

Terrestrial Vegetation of Exposed Beaches

The coastal vegetation communities of the western Arabian Gulf from Kuwait to Qatar, including
Bahrain, have been described (Halwagy and Halwagy, 1977; Böer and Warnken, 1996). Coastal species can be
identified using the keys, illustrations, and descriptions provided by El-Ghonemy (1985), Collenette (1985),
Phillips (1988), Cornes and Cornes (1989),Western (1989), and Mandaville (1990). Böer and Warnken (1996)
described the vegetation assemblages found in the JMWS (Table 3.2). Although the JMWS study area is small,
it is reasonably representative of the eastern Arabian Gulf coastline. For example, the salt marsh vegetation
recorded in the study area was similar to that found elsewhere on the Arabian Gulf coast (Zahran, 1977).

Böer (1996) identified relationships among soil characteristics, such as particle size and chloride
concentration, and the distribution of several plant genera. For example, Calligonum coosum, Haloxylon
salicornicum, Rhanterium epapposum, Phoenix dactylifera, Leptadenia pyrotechnical, and Lycium sawii were
associated with dune soils where the substrate is comprised mainly of coarse sand, and the water table is
deep. The substrate has generally low water content and poorly sorted grains (which may include snail
shell fragments).Vegetation present around the margin of sabkha habitats included Halocnemum strobilaceum,
Halopeplis perforata, or Aeluropus lagopoides. These species are able to tolerate a shallow water table of very
high salinity. A third group of species dominated sheltered areas of medium to fine-grained sediment
where inundation occurred more frequently (salt marsh species, see Chapter 3.3). In locations where tidal
flooding is rare, Lymonium and Zygophyllum species can occur.

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TABLE 3.2. General habitats and associated vegetation of the coastal mainland, nearshore islands and offshore islands
(Based on Böer and Warnken, 1996).

Habitat Vegetation

Sand sheets Calligonum comosum, Convolvulus cephalopodus, Haloxylon salicornicum, Haplophyllum tuberculatum,
Helianthemum lippii, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Maresia plgmaea. Mohhiopsis ciliata, Monsonia niuea, Panicum
turgidum, Pennisetum diuisum, Plantago spp., Rhanterium epapposum, Seneciog laucus, Stipagrostisp lumosa

Dune slopes Pennisetum diuisum, Phoenix dactylifera, Zygophyllum qatarense

Salt marshes Arthrocnemum macrostachyum, Avicennia marina, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Halopeplis perfoliata,
Halopyrurn macronatum, Limonium axillare Salicornia europaea, Sporobolus iolados, Suaeda maritirna
Storm berms Bienertiar cyclopter, Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Suaeda verrniculata, Zygophyllum qatarense
Offshore islands Mesembryanthernurn nodiflorum, Salsola baryosma, Suaeda vermiculata
Coral sand sheets

Results reported by Barth (2003) reflected similar relationships between soils and flora. A Suaeda-type
assemblage was most common on coastal sands, while a Lymonium-type assemblage was more common in
similar substrates composed of coastal sands that contained a higher proportion of silt. Barth also reported
Halopeplis and Zygophyllum near and along coastal sabkha margins.

Although the coastal islands share a great number of species of plants with the adjacent mainland,
important differences occur among the mainland, nearshore islands, and offshore islands (Böer and Warnken,
1996). For example, moss was found growing on the mainland and a few nearshore islands but not on
the offshore islands where, presumably, the conditions (e.g., salinity, movement of substrate) prevent its
growth. Based on the species reported by Böer and Warnken (1996), the mainland coast hosted 97 species
and shared 56 species (32.7%) with the coastal islands that were not found on the offshore islands. The
mainland, coastal, and offshore islands only shared 12 species (7%). In contrast, the offshore islands had no
species that were not found in the other two areas. The nearshore islands hosted four species (2.3%) that
were not found on either the mainland or the offshore islands. Only two species (1.1%) occurred on both
the mainland and offshore islands but not on the nearshore islands investigated (Böer and Warnken, 1996).
These data do not fully represent the diversity of flora found on the mainland coast, but they do provide
insight into the reduction in floral diversity on the nearshore and offshore islands compared to that found
on the mainland.

The larger islands have dense vegetation cover of Suaeda vermiculata and Salsola baryosma; in addition,
Mesembryanthemum nudiflorum is also present following rainfall. Other species may occasionally be found on
the islands. Their seeds and propagules may reach the islands by floating on the ocean or being transported by
human activity. The long history of human use of the islands means that seeds and/or propagules have likely
been transported on clothing or nets. If seeds or propagules arrive on the islands during the moist period of the
year, the plants may survive to reproduce.Their continued survival depends on their tolerance of dry conditions
and salt.

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Marine Vegetation
Algae dominates the intertidal areas, which may extend several hundred meters from the high tide line
of the beach at low tide. Algae and seagrass form mixed communities close to the beach where fine sand
and silt substrates occur. Mangroves exist at isolated places along the coast. The animals that inhabit these
areas undergo extremes of temperature and dehydration as the tide drains and refills the flats. Algal flats
provide habitat and food for burrowing infauna as well as shrimp, crabs, fishes, and infrequently, Green
turtles (Chelonia mydas) and dugong at high tide.

Seagrass is distributed in a narrow band (10 m to 20 m wide) along in the shallow water (2 m to 3 m
depth) of the mainland coast and on the reef flats of the offshore islands where it is associated with fine sand
and silt substrates. Although in some areas, seagrass grows sparsely; in others, it forms extensive meadows.
Three species (Halodule univervis, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila ovalis) live in mixed species meadows at some
sites and in single species meadows at others. Seagrass meadows are the dominate biotope in the coastal
bays, especially between Safaniyah and Manifa, in Musallamiyah, and in Dawhat Abu ‘Ali. In addition,
seagrass meadows occur in Traut Bay, Dawhat Zalum (Half Moon Bay) and in the Gulf of Salwa, including
the Uqayr embayment.

Seagrass ecosystems are complex and dynamic; more than 525 species have been recorded in the
seagrass areas of eastern Saudi Arabia (Basson, et al., 1977; McCain, 1984a, 1984b; Sheppard, et al., 1992).
Epiohytic algae may grow on the leaves in some areas along the coast. Many species of molluscs occur in the
seagrass meadows in varying densities; e.g., pen shells (Pinna muricata), Conus textile, Bulla ampulla, Trochus
sp., Cerithium sp., Clypeomorus sp., Phasianella sp. may occur in high numbers, as well as spat and adult pearl
oysters (Pinctada spp.), which may also be present. Echinoderms (e.g., Clypeaster humilis, Echinodiscus auritus,
E. mathaei, Astropecten polycanthus, Asterina burtoni) and sponges (e.g., Haliclona sp., Ophiothrix savignyi) live
in the seagrass areas along with polychaetes and crustaceans (e.g., Cymodoce sp., Squilla sp.). Commercial
species of shrimp and fish inhabit seagrass meadows, at least while immature. Dugong (Dugong dugong) and
Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) also forage in the meadows at high tide. Many birds visit the tidal flats to
forage during low tide on their migrations through the Gulf region.

Storms, as well as human activity, alter seagrass meadows. Entire seagrass plants can have leaves broken
off and/or plants may be uprooted during storms by wave action; this material often ends up on the
beaches where it is washed to the high tide lines and sometimes blown further inland. Subsequent sand
movement buries the material into the beaches and dunes where it decays and contributes to the organic
matter of the coastal ecosystem.

Mangroves occur in clumps along the coast and do not occur on the offshore islands. Although only
one species of mangrove, Avicennia marina, lives in the Gulf and the stands of growth are not widespread,
the communities support large faunal assemblages, including many invertebrates (40 species of crustaceans
and 50 species of mollusks, as well as smaller numbers of sponge, echinoderm, coelenterate, polychaete and
ascidian species).Vertebrate wildlife associated with mangroves includes over 86 species of fish (including
juveniles), over 200 bird species, three species of marine turtles, and four species of mammals (Krupp, et
al., 1996).The mangroves also provide habitat for juvenile shrimp (e.g., Penaeus indicus, Penaeus semisulcatus)
as well as other invertebrates.

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Fauna of Beach, Dune, and Exposed Sand Flat Habitats

Invertebrate and vertebrate, terrestrial and marine animals inhabit the dune, beach and island ecosystems.
Terrestrial animals are able to avoid extremes of temperature and dehydration by sheltering under vegetation
or in burrows. Marine animals also shelter under or next to plants and other structures as the tide drains
and refills the flushed areas. In addition, sand is a mobile substrate, and resident infauna must deal with
sediment movement driven by wind and tide.

Invertebrates
The landward side of the coastal dunes hosts a variety of terrestrial invertebrates. Unfortunately, there
are few studies on the arthropod fauna of the coastal margin. The taxonomic works and descriptions of
new species are scattered in the literature. The single best portal to the coastal arthropods is the Fauna of
Arabia series. A recent 3-day winter study of arthropods on a nearshore island in the UAE produced a list
of over 60 species representing 11 orders (Gillett and Gillett, 2002) that gives an indication of the diversity
of arthropods that may be expected in the coastal zone of the Western Arabian Gulf. The list included
arthropods that are migratory (e.g., insects) and permanent residents (e.g., crustaceans) (Gillett and Gillett,
2002); surveying in different seasons will likely add to the list.

Though substrates in beaches and moderately exposed sand tidal flats are dominated by sand, the
benthic infauna that colonizes these habitats differs in important ways, particularly at lower tidal elevations
(Table 3.3). At higher tidal elevations of exposed beach habitats, near the upper limit of the intertidal zone,
Ocypode (ghost crab), Scopimera (burrowing sand crab), Tylos (burrowing isopod), and Talitrus (amphipod
beach hopper) are commonly encountered (Figure 3.4). However, wind and wave energy in the mid-tide

TABLE 3.3. The species observed in sand substrate habitats during surveys conducted in 2002-2003 (RPI, 2003).

Upper Lower
Littoral Fringe Mid-Eulittoral
Eulittoral Eulittoral
Ocypode sp. Eurydice arabica Ilyoplax frater Excirolana orientalis
Talorchestia martensil Excirolana orientalis Excirolana orientalis P. conica
Orchestla platensis Pirinella conica P. conica M. blanda
Tylos sp. Mitrella blanda M. blanda D. hepatica
Scopimera crabricauda Dosinia hepatica D. hepatica Emirita
Emerita sp. Emerita sp. C. cingulata
Macrophthalmus. sp. Cerithidea cingulata M. umbonella
Scopimera crabricauda Macrocallista umbonella Macrophthalmus sp.
Umbonium vestiarium Macrophthalmus sp. Ancilla castanea
Nassarius plicatus Ancilla castanea Circe callipyga
Marcia sp. Gari sp.
C. Scabridum Diplodonta sp.

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to lower intertidal areas of beach habitats limits burrowing infauna to robust species, such as Amiantis
(clam) (RPI, 2003).

In moderately exposed tidal flats, lower energy from wind and waves, and subsequent smaller grain size,
allows a wider range of benthic infauna to colonize the substrate (Figure 3.7). Between mid-tide and mean
high tide, this includes Cerithid snails, Macrophthalmus (burrowing mud crab), and Potamid snails. Along
the lowest edge of the intertidal zone, the characteristic benthic fauna expands to include: Priotrochid,
Mitrella, Cerithium snails; Brachidontes mussels, and Nassarius basket whelks (RPI, 2003).

Reptiles and Amphibians

The Arabian herpetological fauna includes amphisbaenas, turtles, lizards, and snakes that use the
terrestrial, freshwater, and/or marine habitats of the coast and islands (Arnold, 1986, 1987; Gasperetti,
1998; Leviton, et al., 1992; Gasperetti, et al., 1993; Al-Merghani, et al., 1996; Martens, 1996), as well as a
few anurans that avoid the dry conditions by inhabiting freshwater oases (Balletto, et al., 1985).

Although anurans occur in the general coastal region, none have been reported from the actual coastal
zone (Balletto, et al., 1985) because anuran distribution is restricted to habitats that provide enough moisture
for breeding and foraging, and typically, these are not available in the arid coastal zone. One species (Rana
ridibunda) does inhabit the nearshore island of Tarut at Al Qatif oasis (Balletto, et al., 1985), where it lives
and breeds of the irrigation channels. Similarly, amphisbaenas exhibit restrictions on their distribution, at
least locally, because their preference for high substrate moisture habitat that does not generally occur in
the coastal zone.

Lizards and snakes are the dominant reptilian fauna of the coastal ecosystem (Martens, 1996). They are
relatively common in the structurally complex dune area and relatively uncommon on the sandy beach.
Occasionally beach washed sea snakes are found along the mainland beaches during the colder months
(Gasperetti, 1988; Martens, 1996). Martens (1996) reported 14 species of lizards representing five families
(Agamidae, Gekkonidae, Lacertidae, Scincidae, Varanidae) and four species of snakes from three families
(Boidae, Colubridae,Viperidae) from the JWMS. Because these species are able to cross short distances of
salt water, their distribution is not limited to the coastal mainland and nearshore islands; three species occur
on the offshore islands (two geckos, one skink).

Turtles can be divided into three general groups based on their habitat preferences: terrestrial, freshwater,
and marine. No terrestrial turtles have been recorded along the coast of the Eastern Province and only
one species of freshwater turtle (Mauremys caspica) has been reported in the oases of Al Qatif, Al Hufuf and
Al Uqayr (Gasperetti, et al., 1993). Although the Caspian turtle may occasionally be found in brackish,
estuarine water, its populations do better in freshwater habitats. Because only Tarut Island of all islands has
freshwater, it is the only coastal island that this turtle can inhabit.

Two species of marine turtles breed on the offshore islands (Gasperetti, et al., 1993; Al-Merghani,
et al., 1996; see Chapter 4.4). The Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) breeds in June through August
whereas the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) breeds in May and June. In addition to the
influx of breeding individuals, each species has resident populations the live around the reefs of
the Gulf islands. These species (especially the Green turtle) also use the habitats in the coastal bays

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where seagrass meadows and coral or rocky habitats occur. The offshore islands are not uniformly
used by nesting turtles. Karan Island supports the main nesting population of Green turtles and the
second largest nesting population of Hawksbill turtles in the Western Gulf. Jana Island supports the
main Hawksbill turtle nesting population and the second largest nesting population of Green turtles.
Jurayd Island hosts lower numbers of nesting Hawksbill and Green turtles than Karan and Jana. Small
numbers of Green and Hawksbill turtles nest on Kuryain Island. Occasionally, both Hawksbill turtles
and Green turtles attempt to nest on Harqus Island.

Although the offshore islands are the primary nesting locations, recently low density marine turtle
nesting has been documented on the mainland near Ras Tanura by both Green and Hawksbill turtles.
Nesting along this portion of the coast has not occurred consistently in over 50 years (Gasperetti,
et al., 1993). These individuals are considered to be part of the offshore island nesting population (see
Chapter 4.4).

Several species of sea snakes inhabit the nearshore tidal areas (see Chapter 4.4 for details). Based on
museum records and beach washed specimens, at least six species (Pelamis platura, Hydrophis cyanocinctus,
Hydrophis lapemoides, Hydrophis spiralis, Hydrophis (Microcephalophis) gracilis, Lapemis curtus, (Gasperetti, 1988;
Martens, 1996) utilize the shallow waters found along the mainland and island beaches during the colder
months. Systematic surveys to determine the occurrence and distribution of all species of sea snakes in the
Arabian Gulf need to be conducted.

Mammals
Detailed studies of the terrestrial of the coastal mainland and adjacent islands are few (Kock and Nader,
1996). During a total of 4 weeks of field work conducted between January and June, 1992, Kock and
Nader (1996) surveyed several near coastal sites characterized as “sandy,” “vegetated sand dune,” and “sand
banks slightly elevated” in the JMWS. Of the 14 species of mammals (ranging from the common mouse
(Mus musculus) to the Arabian fox (Vulpes v. arabica) and including one bat (Asellia t. tridens), they identified
seven species that inhabit the coastal margin (Table 3.4). Most of these species are well-known to be either
adaptable, or highly mobile, or both, and represent fauna that are more opportunistic users of beach and
dune habitats than obligate residents.

Kock and Nader (1996) speculate that the species recorded represent a reduced diversity from previous
times. At least one species of gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) (possibly two) have been expatriated from the
area through hunting and habitat modification; reintroduction of the sand gazelle is considered feasible
(Kock and Nader, 1996). The presence of feral cats (Feliscatus) may have caused a reduction in smaller prey
species, such as lizards and small birds.

As expected, given the size range and ecological trophic role of the species, more species, particularly
the larger predators, were found on the mainland where they can maintain larger home ranges and find
more food than on nearshore islands. At least three small species (Gerbillus sp., Meriones sp., Mus musculus)
inhabited nearshore Jinnah Island. Only one species (Mus musculus) was found on the offshore islands. Mice
probably arrived on the Karan, Jana, Kurayn and Jurayd islands with fishermen and traders many decades
ago. Typically, mice are vegetarian but on the offshore islands their diet includes sea bird eggs and chicks,
as well as marine turtle eggs and hatchlings.

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TABLE 3.4. Mammals documented to be present in the coastal dune and adjacent island’s ecosystems in the vicinity of
Jubail (from: Kock and Nader, 1996).

Common Name Scientific Name Trophic Position Habitat Uses IUCN

Cheeseman’s gerbil Gerbillus cheesmani Omnivore Shelter, forage Least Concern
Jird Meriones spp. Omnivore Shelter, forage Least Concern
House mouse Mus musculus Omnivore Shelter, forage (may represent threat to
conservation of other spp.)
Feral cat Felis catus Scavenger, predator Shelter, forage (may represent threat to
conservation of other spp)
Red fox Vulpes vulpes Scavenger, predator Shelter, forage Least Concern
Asiatic jackal Canus aureus Scavenger, predator Shelter, forage Least Concern, but no subspecies
is listed JMWS needs protection

Based on aerial surveys and stranded carcasses, six species of marine mammals (dugong porpoises,
dolphins, and whales) inhabit the northern Arabian Gulf (Robineau and Fiquet, 1996; see Chapter
4.4). The dugong (Dugong dugong) is more common along the coast where it feeds on seagrass in
summer than in winter when large herds congregate in the area between Bahrain and Qatar (Preen,
1989). Three dolphins, common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates),
humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) use the in-shore and offshore habitats. The small, finless porpoise
(Neophocaena phocoenoides) is represented by only a few specimens and its status along the coast is
unknown (Robineau and Fiquet, 1996). Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni) has been recorded several
times near the offshore islands and it is considered to be a resident in the northern Gulf (Robineau
and Fiquet, 1996).

Birds
More than 75% of the bird species (n = 275 of 360) recorded in the Eastern Province occur along the
coast, in the coastal embayments, and on the nearshore and offshore islands, including resident, migratory,
and over-wintering passerines and non-passerines (Symens and Alsuhaibany, 1996a; see Chapter 4.4). Beach
and exposed sand tidal flat habitats are frequently used by both marine and shorebirds because the shallow
coastal embayments provide food for waterfowl and the surrounding environment provides an essential
habitat for other species for roosting or foraging.

The coastal region supports species that (1) are globally endangered (n = 5), (2) threatened or declining
(n = 5), and/or (3) have restricted ranges (n = 15) (Symens and Alsuhaibany, 1996a). Of the six species of
terns that nest in the northwestern Gulf region, the White-cheeked tern (Sterna repressa) is the only one
that uses the mainland for nesting.

The islands are used as a stopover site by numbers of migrants, such as wheatears, warbles and shrikes.
Swift terns (Sterna bergii), Lesser Crested terns (Sterna bengalensis), Bridled terns (Sterna anaethetus) and

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White-cheeked terns (Sterna repressa) commonly nest on the islands in the spring and early summer
(Symens and Alsuhaibany, 1996b). Each species congregates into separate nesting colonies in the vegetated
areas toward the ends of the islands; each colony may contain several thousand birds. Most species nest in
the spring but some, like the several hundred Socotra cormorants (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis) that nest on
Kurayn, begin nesting in winter (Symens and Werner, 1996).

The six species of terns nest on the offshore islands in the northwestern Gulf region; however,
occasionally one or more species will nest on nearshore islands or the mainland (Table 3.5).The offshore
islands are the most important breeding site for Sterna bengalensis in the world (BirdLife International,
2009). The offshore islands provide nesting sites for Socotra Cormorants (Phalacrocorax nigrogularis)
(Symens and Werner, 1996). Other breeding species include Galerida cristata, Melanocorypha bimaculata
(irregular) and Calandrella brachydactyla (irregular). In addition, the islands are important for breeding larks,
including Crested Lark (Galerida cristata), Lesser Short-toed Lark (Calandrella rufescens), and occasionally,
Bimaculated Lark (Melanocorypha bimaculata).

The use of the islands by birds is not uniform (Table 3.5). Karan Island has the largest breeding
population of Lesser Crested terns in Saudi Arabia; it also hosts numerous Bridled terns and White-
cheeked terns and a small number of Swift terns. Jana Island is used by the largest nesting colony of White-
cheeked terns on the coral islands. Bridled terns nest in large numbers while Lesser Crested terns and Swift terns
nest in small numbers on the island.The seabird nesting density typically exceeds 25 birds per hectare. Jurayd Island
supports the largest breeding population of Bridled terns in Saudi Arabia, in addition, large numbers of breeding
Lesser Crested terns and White-cheeked terns use the island. Kurayn Island is the breeding location for very large
numbers of Lesser Crested terns and numerous Bridled terns; White-cheeked terns nest in smaller numbers on the

TABLE 3.5. Breeding season and habitat used by the principle species of birds nesting on the Saudi Arabian Gulf
Islands. Based on Symens and Alsuhaibany (1996b).

Estimated
Species Breeding Season Numbers Habitat Islands
(Pairs)
Bridled Tern March or April until 34,000 Nest in dense colonies in Juraid, Jana, Karan
Onychoprion anaethetus September or October vegetation and Kurayn Islands
Lesser Crested Tern March or April until 20,000 Dense and very localized Juraid, Jana, Kurain,
(Thalasseus bengalensis) September or October colonies on the bare ground Harqus and Karan Islands
White-cheeked Tern March or April until 10,000 Small colonies spread over the Juarid, Jana and Karan
Sterna repressa September or October islands in areas of scattered Islands
vegetation and low annual
plants
Swift Tern Thalasseus May to September or 3,500 Large, dense, very localized Harqus, Kurain, Karan
bergii October colonies on bare ground and Jana Islands
Socotra Cormorant Winter 30+ Shores of level sand or gravel, Kurain Island
Phalacrocorax or gently sloping hills free from
nigrogularis vegetation (Johnsgard, 1993)

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island. About 30 pairs of Socotra Cormorants nest on Kurayn during the winter. Harqus Island supports the largest
nesting colony of Swift terns and a lower number of Lesser Crested terns. For the most part, Arabiyah Island has
been abandoned by breeding seabirds because of the development of a Coast Guard station, although many birds
roost around the island.

Discussion
From a biological point of view, coastal and coral islands are harsh environments; they are exposed
to direct sunshine, high temperatures during the day, and salt spray, especially during storms. Life on the
islands of the Arabian Gulf faces maximum air temperatures that may exceed 45 °C in June, July, and
August, northwesterly wind gusts up to 50 knots during May through August (Wright, 1974; Hughes
and Hunter, 1979), and as a result, rapid evaporation (Sugden, 1963; Hunter, 1982). Around the islands the
surface currents are driven by the prevailing northerly shamal winds that move flotsam and jetsam on to
the northern edges of the reefs and northern facing beaches of the islands. Tidal patterns include diurnal,
semi-diurnal ranges of between 3+ m in the north to less than 1 m in the south (Price, 1982; Jones, 1986).
The mean tidal range is about 2 m during spring tides and 1.5 m during neap tides in the middle portion
of the coast.

Except for roosting and nesting birds, very few animals are active on the islands during the day
because of the high temperatures. Many small animals such as amphipods, crabs, and insects, are active
only at night to avoid the harsh conditions. Some species burrow into the sand, whereas others shelter
under debris or in tunnels. The crepuscular/nocturnal Ghost crab (Ocypode samtari) constructs conical
mounds of sand at the entrances of the burrows near the high tide line. Lizards and mice avoid the
high temperatures and dehydration by sheltering in burrows or under vegetation during the heat of
the day.

On the offshore islands of the Arabian Gulf, the food webs are relatively simple. House mice, which
arrived on dhows and other vessels, are the top predator on the islands. They will eat crabs, lizards, birds,
seeds, and virtually anything else they can find. However, when they die, they are consumed by crabs, birds
and a myriad of small organisms.

Both birds and turtles contribute to the transfer of nutrient material from the ocean to the terrestrial
areas. Adult birds and turtles forage in the marine ecosystem, digest some of their food to support their
own metabolism and growth, and use some of the food energy to prepare for reproduction. Their follicles
become the yolks of their eggs that are deposited on the islands; also the egg shells are rich in calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium and other elements. Some of their eggs do not hatch, while others are depredated,
and many of their embryos and hatchlings die, contributing their contents to the island energy, nutrient,
and mineral cycles.

However, these are not the only contributions to the energy and mineral cycles of the islands made by
turtles and birds. Because turtles dig body pits and egg chambers on the beach and sometimes within the
vegetated areas, they incorporate detritus from the surface deeper into the sand where the material breaks
down. During the nesting season, hundreds of cubic meters of beach will be mixed by the nesting turtles.

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Birds forage over the reefs and open water areas for themselves while incubating their eggs; after the chicks
hatch, the parent birds must capture small fish to feed to their chicks and to maintain their own energy.
Some of the food brought to the island is consumed directly by the chicks; some is not. The parents may
regurgitate the food before trying to feed it to their chicks; some of the food is dropped while the chick
tries to swallow it and is not eaten. Some of this material is consumed by scavengers and some is mixed
into the sand by the turtles.

Both adult birds and growing chicks defecate near the nest and elsewhere on the island. Microbes as well
as beetles and other organisms benefit from the feces, unused food, and vegetation that are incorporated into
the island. The myriad of terrestrial detritivores assist in the breakdown of the material into its component
parts. The components become incorporated into plants that live on the islands. Through photosynthesis,
plants convert the organic and inorganic compounds in the sandy substrate into form simple sugars that
are stored in the plant body, and help it to grow and reproduce. The plants are either consumed and their
parts incorporated into other organisms or they die and decompose, releasing the organic and inorganic
compounds to be reused.

Sea level rise

Any consideration of the characteristics of the sandy beaches and tidal flats of the study area should
involve some consideration of future changes in sea level in the Gulf, particularly the potential for sea
level rise. A study by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Laboratory of Satellite
Altimetry shows that between 1992 and 2008, global sea level has increased at the rate of 3.2 millimeters/
year. No matter the predicted amount of sea level rise, it will have some impact on the coastal zone and
the plants and animals that live there.

Another factor that impacts the actual future sea level rise along any shoreline is local tectonic influences
(i.e., whether the land is rising or falling). There have been a number of studies that have dealt with land
elevation changes around the Gulf area in the past 5,000 years, the time when sea level reached near its
present level around the world (in the open ocean). The Arabian Peninsula and the Arabian Gulf area are
changing:

1. Qatar: Rising at a rate of 1.1 millimeters per year (Vita-Finzi, 1982). The present rate of sea level
rise is 3.2 millimeters per year, so the rising land in this area only nullifies one-third of the impact
of sea level rise, assuming both factors remain relatively constant.
2. Al Jubail, Saudi Arabia: Rising at the rate of 0.3 millimeters per year (Ridley and Seeley, 1979).
3. Musandam Peninsula, Oman: Sinking at rate of 8.5 millimeters per year (Vita-Finzi, 1982).
4. Indian Ocean shoreline of Oman: Rising at rate of 0.35 millimeters per year, based on measuring
topographic beach profiles in which an “old raised beach ridge” presumably formed about 5,000
years ago was 177 cm higher than the present high tide line (Hayes and Baird, 1993).

Although the tectonic changes listed above are relatively minor compared to sea level rise, except for
possibly along the Strait of Hormuz, they contribute to the dynamic nature of the region.

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Conservation of Coastal Ecosystems

The coastal and nearshore ecosystem faces a number of threatening processes in the near future (Brown
and McLachlan, 2002; Esseen, 1996; Brown, et al., 2008) from a number of human activities, including
fishing, dredging and reclamation, and pollution (e.g., industrial, shipping, and refinery waste, oil spills,
desalination wastewater, and domestic sewage) (Sheppard, et al., 2010). The impacts of some of these
activates have received a lot of attention, whereas the impacts of others have not (Abuzinada, et al., 2008).
For example, the impacts of oil extraction and oil spill on wildlife and coastal areas are well documented. In
the Arabian Gulf during the 1991 Gulf oil spill, large areas of the coast were coated with oil. Coastal plant
communities and animals were contaminated in the massive spill despite containment and cleanup efforts.
Uncounted numbers of birds became oiled and died; marine mammals, turtles, and fishes were also killed.
The subtidal communities were contaminated with oil (Michel, et al., 1993). This devastation provided
a basis for studying how coastal communities progressively recover from such events (Coles and Gunay,
1989; Fowler, 1993) and the development of better management (Abuzinada, et al., 2008; Van Lavieren,
et al., 2011).

Coastal development is another human impact that alters habitat on dunes, beaches, and nearshore
environments. The impacts are not just during the initial construction phase but continue as perpetual
impacts through permanent alteration of the coast and ongoing human activities.

A more subtle but equally important coastal issue is beach washed debris. It is a significant problem
even on remote beaches. The floating debris (wood, plastic) that washes up on the beaches comes from
large ships transiting the Gulf, as well as dhows and small boats. Some debris is blown from the land into
the water and eventually washes onto the beaches. Besides being unsightly, plastic debris can be ingested by
invertebrates as well as by large vertebrates (Hidalgo-Ruz and Thiel, 2013). In addition, when plastic debris
is ingested its organic components may be accumulated by marine organisms (Engler, 2012). A more subtle
problem is that plastic debris may cause changes in the thermal and hydric properties of beaches, which
could affect beach organisms (Carson, et al., 2011).

The use of fish traps, and shore nets, is common along the coastal ecosystem of the western Arabian
Gulf (Essen, 1996). Recent analysis of satellite imagery has revealed that this style of fishing is used
more widely than previously thought (Al-Abdulrazzak and Pauly, 2014). Unfortunately, fish traps are
nonselective and trap any animal that swims over the tidal areas, including turtles, and occasionally,
a marine mammal. When traps are maintained and checked regularly, bycatch mortality is kept to a
minimum, however, if the traps are abandoned, the remaining debris can entrap and entangle fish and
other marine animals.

The ecosystem of the coast, including the dune, beach and intertidal areas are an essential part of the
Arabian Gulf biome. They form the boundary between the land and the sea. Although a lot is known
about the geomorphology and the biology of the coast, not enough is known to support its conservation
management. An integrated approach to coastal conservation and management should begin with an
assessment of the coastal region by identifying abiotic and biotic features and issues, as well as holding
discussions with the stakeholders.This interactive process would identify gaps in the necessary information
and form the basis on which to develop a coordinated management program. One outcome of such an
iterative process would be the development of system coastal and marine reserves throughout eastern Saudi

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Arabia. Regulations should emphasize the protection of the habitat for the greatest benefit of the greatest
number of species and encourage the development of sustainable use by commercial interests.

Research Priorities
The biological needs of the coastal and marine wildlife of the Eastern Province require better
definition to facilitate their long-term survival. In addition, their habitats need to be conserved to support
their populations. An integrated approach to coastal conservation and management should begin with an
assessment of the coastal region by identifying both abiotic and biotic features, and the issues that impact
them. In addition, stakeholders should be involved in the discussions in an interactive process to identify
gaps in the necessary information and form the basis on which to develop a coordinated management
program.

One outcome of such an iterative process would be the development of system coastal and marine
reserves throughout eastern Saudi Arabia. Emphasis should be on the protection of the habitat for the
greatest benefit of the greatest number of species while encouraging the development of sustainable use
by private and commercial interests.

High priority should be given to resolving issues associated with:

1. Protection of coastal terrestrial and marine ecosystem to support healthy habitats (water, sediment,
vegetation) used by invertebrates, fishes, turtles, birds, and other animals.
2. Protection of reef ecosystem to support island nesting and foraging by turtles, birds, and other
animals.
3. Restoration of degraded habitats to protect fisheries, bird breeding and resting during migration, as
well as the coastal food web.
4. Elimination of invasive species (mice) from the offshore islands.

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