Name:____________________________________________Grade and Section:_________________

Activity No. 1. Frog’s Skeletal System

Most animal bodies are provided with a supporting framework or skeleton. The frog's skeleton is
a jointed internal framework that supports the soft parts of the body, protects the most vital
organs, and provides attachments for the muscles used in movements and locomotion. The
supporting framework of a frog larvae (tadpole) is entirely cartilage, but the adult is chiefly of
bones with cartilage on the ends of the limb bones, parts of the skull, and in the limb girdles.
The skull, vertebral column (backbone), and sternum (breastbone) comprise the median or axial
skeleton; the paired fore- and hind limbs together with the supporting shoulder and hip girdles
form the appendicular skeleton. The frog or toad has no ribs.

Skeletons for study are prepared by "stewing" a freshly killed frog or toad in mild alkali (washing
powders, etc.) to soften the flesh. The flesh is then removed by scraping and brushing. Care is
needed to preserve the soft cartilage and to prevent some parts from being separated or
disarticulated.

Materials
Frog
Hydrogen peroxide (you can buy one small bottle for the whole class; kindly decide on
it)
Plastic cups
Container with cover
Dishwashing liquid
Tooth brush
Forceps – LABORATORY
Scissors

See video for the process of getting the skeleton of the frog successfully.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=umJUV1Nh-Xg
AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton is the medially situated part of the skeleton and is composed of the:

A. Skull
The conspicuous divisions are:
a. cranium or brain box -housing the brain
b. jaws - upper jaw fused with cranium and lower jaw with non-movable attachment.
C. sense capsules - paired cavities for special sense organs:
1. nasal/olfactory capsule - harbors nostrils
2. auditory capsule - for the ear
3. optic capsule - a spacious orbit that harbors eye
d. hyoid cartilage - embedded beneath tongue; lacking in cleaned skeleton just as the slender
columella of each middle ear.

1. Dorsal Surface
a. premaxilla-most anterior teeth-bearing (in frogs only) that forms the tip of the upper
jaw. b.
b. maxilla - teeth-bearing (in frogs only) bones posterior to the premaxilla that form the
largest and middle segment of the upper jaw.
c. quadratojugal - toothless short bone posterior to maxilla.
d. frontoparietal - slender bone (in frog only) forming most of the roof of the skull united
at the median line by the sagittal suture.
e. sphenethmoid - small squarish bone anterior to frontoparietal (dorsally visible in frog,
but ventral in toad).
f. nasal - triangular bone anterior to sphenethmoid; covering the nasal capsule.
g. prootic - projection on each side of the skull posterior to the frontoparietal forming the
auditory capsule.
h. squamosal- lateral to the prootic whose longer end extends outward to the lower jaw.
i.
i. exoccipital - short bone surrounding a large opening at the posterior boundary of the
skull.
j. occipital condyle - rounded prominence on each exoccipital bone.

2. Ventral Surface
a. parasphenoid - central dagger-shaped bone that forms the floor of the skull.
b. basisphenoid - lateral to parasphenoid.
c. sphenethmoid - bone lateral to the basisphenoid.
d. vomer- flat wing-shaped and teeth-bearing (in frog only) just posterior to the
premaxillae.
e. palatine - bone-extending laterally from the anterior end of the sphenethmoid to the
maxillae. f. pterygoid - three-edged bone joined to the prootic, squamosal and maxillae.
The large posterior opening between the occipital condyle is the foramen magnum through
which the brain and spinal cord connect. There are also paired openings called foramina for exit
of cranial nerves in the sides of the cranium.

3. Lower jaw
The lower jaw may be divided into left and right halves. Each half consists of the following fused
bones seen from the side:

a. Mentomeckelian - the anterior bone that unites the two halves of the jaw b.
b. dentary - middle bone
c. angulare - posterior bone

B. Vertebral Column
Composed of ten segmented bones. Each segment is called a vertebra. The specific identities
of the vertebrae are:
a. atlas - the first, most anterior, without that transverse processes, articulating with the occipital
condyles of the skull.
b. typical vertebrae - second to eight vertebrae (lumbar region).
c. sacral vertebra - ninth vertebra with long transverse processes extending backward (in frogs
only), articulating with the pelvic girdle.
d. urostyle - tenth terminal bone; slender, with dorsal keel; articulating with the sacral vertebra.

1. Parts of a typical vertebra.

Examine the vertebral bones and locate the following:

a. centrum - ventral spool-life base or body; concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly.
b. neural arch - pair of dorso-lateral projection on the centrum fused mid dorsally; encloses
nerve cord.
c. neural canal - cavity enclosed by the neural arch.
d. neural spine - caudally directed projection on the mid dorsal part of neural arch; for muscle
attachments.
e. transverse processes - the pair of elongated processes that extend at right angles to centrum;
for muscle attachments.
f. zygapophyses - paired processes on each end of the neural arch:
1. prezygapophyses -articulating processes at the anterior end of neural arch.
2. postzygapophyses- articulating processes at the posterior end of the neural arch.
g.Sternum - the breastbone, is divided by the pectoral girdle into anterior and posterior regions.
Beginning anteriorly, identify the following (some may be missing in your specimen):
1. episternum - flat, slightly circular cartilage at the anterior tip of the omosternum.
2. omosternum - tapered bone attached anteriorly to the epicoracoid.
3. epicoracoid - cartilage between clavicle and coracoids.
 4. mesosternum - bony rod, posterior counterpart of the omosternum, correspondingly
connected to epicoracoid.
5. xiphisternum -thin heart-shaped cartilage, the posterior counterpart of the episternum
at the tip of mesosternum.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton arises from the axial skeleton; laterally situated and paired.

A. Limb Girdles
Paired, composed of:
1. pectoral or shoulder girdle
together with the sternum forms the arch of bones and cartilage around the anterior portion of
trunk; divided into left and right halves, each consists of:
a. suprascapula - distal, thin and flat, dorsal portion of the girdle
b. clavicle or collarbone - slender antero-medial to the scapula
c. scapula - smaller piece of bone articulating with suprascapula
d. coracoids - bone flared at ends, postero-medial to scapula

The opening, which separates the clavicle and coracoids, is the fenestra. The posterior cup-
shaped cavity between the coracoids and the scapula, which receives the head of the humerus,
is the glenoid fossa.

2. pelvic or hip girdle

- the posterior -shaped bone that joins anteriorly to the transverse process of sacral vertebra
and supports the posterior limbs; has left and right halves, each half consists of the following.
a. ilium - anterior long and slender bone articulating with sacral vertebrae.
b. ischium - short posterior bone on the dorsal side of the girdle.
c. pubis - triangular cartilage of the ventral side of the girdle.
The cup-like depression formed at the area of the union of the three pairs of bones, which
receives the head of the femur, is called acetabulum. The areas of the median posterior fusion
of the three pairs of bones are known as symphyses.

B. Limbs
Each long bone has a centrally cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) and expanded ends (epiphyses)
covered by cartilage for smooth action of the joints.

1. anterior limbs or forelimbs

- paired and composed of:
 a. humerus - bone of upper arm; with deltoid crest on ventral side; its head fits into the
glenoid fossa.
b. radio-ulna - bone of the forearm; two fused bones, the radius and the ulna.
c. carpals - bones of the wrist consisting of two rows of 3 bones. d.
d. metacarpals - bones of the palm consisting of four slender and rudiments of the
thumb.
e. phalanges - bones of the fingers made up of small pieces arranged linearly.

2. posterior limbs or hindlimbs

- paired and composed of:
a. femur - bone of the thigh; longest bone of the frog's body; its head fits into the
acetabulum of the hip girdle.
b. tibio-fibula -two fused bones (the tibia and the fibula) of the shank, posterior to the
femur.
c. tarsals - bones of the ankle consisting of two rows of bones posterior to the tibio-
fibula: the calcaneum (outer) and astragalus (inner) with an oval space between them.
d. metatarsals - five slender long bones comprising the sole of the foot.
e. phalanges - bones of the toes composed of numerous short bones.

I. Answer the following questions.

1. To what extent is the skeleton of the frog comparable to that of man?

2. What parts of the skeleton afford the most complete protection to the body parts?

3. Of what function is the cartilage at the ends of limb bones?

4. Name the types and give examples of joints found in the frog.
5. List 2 ways forelimbs are different than hind limbs

6. How do skeletal system and muscular system work together?

II. Draw and identify the different parts of the skeletal system in a frog.

Anterior View:

Lateral View
Posterior View

Conclusion:

Name:____________________________________________Grade and Section:_________________

Activity No. 2. Frog’s Muscular System

The skeletal or voluntary muscles are generally attached to and make possible the movement of
the bones. Because of this close association, these muscles are called "skeletal". The
contraction of skeletal muscles may be consciously controlled, so these muscles are also called
"voluntary". Practically all movements of animals are brought about by the contraction of these
muscles.

A typical skeletal muscle is an elongated mass of numerous and generally parallel fibers
enclosed in a tough covering of connective tissue, the fascia. The fascia thickens at the end of
the muscle into a dense fibrous connective tissue called tendon, which attaches the muscle to
the bone. Each skeletal muscle has two points of attachments: the origin which is more fixed or
more proximal attachment, and the insertion, which is more movable or a distal attachment. A
muscle may have more than one attachment at its origin or insertion. The enlarged part
between the origin and the insertion is the belly of the muscle.

Muscles cause movement by contraction. Thus, they only pull and never push. Muscles,
therefore, come in antagonistic pairs that are able to do the opposite actions (Table 16.1).
Movement of skeletal parts that occurs when a muscle contracts is called action of the muscle.

Muscle names are generally descriptive terms referring to the major action, location, direction of
fibers, number of decisions, shape or appearance, origin and insertion, or other features of the
muscle in question.

There are nearly 200 muscles in the frog but only the major ones will be considered.

Material
Skinned frog or toad

Procedure
1. Put a fresh or preserved skinned frog in a dissecting pan.
2. If it is a preserved specimen, rinse it well in running water. Dissecting of muscles
requires greeting each one from those adjacent to it.
3. This can be done by loosening the fascia that holds the muscles together with a probe
so that the origin, insertion and general action may be learned.

The list in the next pages gives the position, shape, origin, insertion, and action of the principal
muscles, beginning anteriorly. The smaller muscles of the eye, head, hand, foot and the deeper
muscles are
omitted.

Table 1 Examples of muscle types and their modes of action

Muscle Type Mode of Action Antagonistic pair (does the

opposite)
 Flexor Moves jointed parts towards Extensor
each other

Adductor Moves a part toward the

longitudinal line of the body Abductor

Levator Raises a jointed part Depressor

Rotator Turns around an axis Tensor

Constrictor Closes an opening Dilator

Table 2 Muscles of the Frog: Location, Origin, Insertion and Action

Location/Name/ Origin Insertion Action

Position/Shape

A. Floor of Mouth

1. SUBMENTAL Anterior end of Tendon in midline Pushes sublingual

In tip of lower jaw, mandible tubercle on lower jaw
short transverse against premaxillae to
muscle close external nares
in respiration

2. MYLOHYOID / Inner end side of Tendon in median Raises floor of mouth

SUBMANDIBULAR lower jaw line in breathing
Is a broad sheet
across the lower jaw

B. Lower Jaw

3. DEPRESSOR Posterior ridge of Extreme posterior Opens mouth

MANDIBULI tympanic ring and end of lower jaw
Behind tympanic ring dorsal fascia

4. TEMPORALIS Side of skull between Near posterior eye Closes mouth

and tympanic ring
end of lower jaw

5. MASSETER Tympanic ring and Lower jaw, behind Like temporalis and
Short, between nos. adjacent bones temporalis small muscles
3 & 4 of two parts connected to lower
 jaw

C. Pectoral Girdle
and Arm

6. DELTOID Two heads from Deltoid crest of Draws arm forward

Anterior border of clavicle, scapula and humerus
upper arm omosternum

7. Coracoid Proximal part of Flexes forearm

CORACORADIALIS radius
Posterior to deltoid

8. STERNO- Episternum From proximal part of Flexes forearm

RADIALS/BICEPS radius by tendon
Fan-shaped behind
no. 6 and partly
under no. 9

9. PECTORALIS Sternum, coracoid, Converges to deltoid Flexes arm, also

Large, fan-shaped of and rectus abdominis crest of humerus expands abdomen by
4 parts muscles compressing viscera
in thorax

10. TRICEPS a) behind border of Radius over elbow Radius over elbow
BRACHII scapula Extends forearm
Dorsal side of upper b) anterior half of
arm humerus

D. Abdominal Wall

11. RECTUS Pubis Dosally on sternum Supports abdomen

ABDOMINIS- and coracoids and holds sternum
Thin lengthwise sheet
beside the mid-
ventral line called
linea alba and divided
transversely by
connective tissue
called tendinous
inscriptions

12. OBLIQUUS Dorsal fascia Linea alba, dorsal to Supports and

EXTERNUS rectus abdominis compresses
Thin sheet over entire abdomen; also
side of body fibers compresses lungs
run posteroventrally

13. TRANSVERSE/ Transverse process Coracoid and Same as obliquus

OBLIQUUS of 4th and 9th xiphisternum, externus
INTERNUS vertebrae and ilium sternum, esophagus
Thin sheet beneath and pericardium and
obliquus externus, on linea alba
fibers run laterally
and anteroventrally

E. Back and Pelvic

Girdle

14. DORSAL Scapula By tendon joining that Raises arm toward

SCAPULAR/ of latissimus dorsi the body
INFRASPINATUS
Triangular behind no.
3 and partly under
no. 4

15. LATISSIMUS Dorsal fascia On deltoid crest of Raises arm upward

DORSI humerus and backward
Narrowly tapered

16. LONGISSIMUS Urostyle, anterior Vertebrae and skull Straightens back and
DORSI third raises hand
Along back; long and
slender with
transverse septa

17. COCCYGEO- Urostyle, anterior Vertebrae and skull Straightens back and
SACRALIS third raises head
Narrow; fibers
diagonal, behind no.
16

18. COCCYGEO- Side of urostyle Ilium, anterior part Holds urostyle in

ILIACUS place
Behind no. 17,
narrow fibers,
diagonal

19. GLUTEUS Ilium, middle of lateral Anterior side of head Draws thigh forward
Short, stout passes of femur and upward
ventrally between
21a and 21b

20. PYRIFORMIS Posterior tip of Medial surface of Raises thigh

Short, slender behind urostyle, above anus femur
21a

F. Thigh - Muscles
of the thigh are
described in
sequence around
the dorsal,
posterior, and
ventral surfaces

21. TRICEPS a) VASTUS Ventral Antero-ventral border

FEMORIS EXTERNUS of acetabulum
Large, covers entire dorsal
anterior border of Posterior dorsal
thigh both dorsally & crest- of ilium; behind
ventrally; origin by 3 no. 19
heads joining midway b) RECTUS
on the thigh ANTICUS FEMORIS
medial, smallest
under no. 19
Mid-ventral third of
ilium
c) VASTUS
INTERNUS

22. ILIOFIBULARIS/ Crest of ilium above Two heads: Like that of triceps
BICEPS acetabulum a) distally on femur femoris
FEMORIS and
Long, slender b) posteriorly on tibio-
between nos. 21 and fibula
23

23. Dorsally on ischium Posteriorly on head Flexes shank

SEMIMEMBRANOSU of tibia-fibula
S
Large, postero-dorsal
on thigh

24. GRACILIS Edge of ischium Inner side of tibio- Flexes shank,

MINOR/ RECTUS fibula, below head adducts thigh
INTERNUS MINOR
Slender, flat attaches
to skin

25. GRACILIS Edge of ischium Inner side of tibio- Flexes shank and
MAJOR/ RECTUS fibula adducts thigh
INTERNUS MAJOR
Larger than no. 24

26. SARTORIUS Ilium, below Inner head of tibia- Flexes shank,

Thigh, oblique band, acetabulum fibula adducts thigh
across ventral
surface of thigh

27. ADDUCTOR Ischium and pubis Distal third of femur Adducts thigh and leg
MAGNUS
Large, runs under no.
26

28. ADDUCTOR Ilium, anterior With adductor Adducts thigh and leg
LONGUS symphisis magnus
Narrow, mostly under
no. 26

29. Ischium, by two With gracilis minor on Adducts thigh and

SEMITENDINOSUS heads proximal end of tiblio- flexes shank
Long, thin, remove fibula
no. 24 to see

G. Shank

30. a) distal end of femur By Achilles tendon Extends foot and

GASTROCNEMIUS by flat tendon over heel and into flexes shank
Two heads: b) edge of knee planter fascia on sole
Large, posterior, tendon of foot
forms "calf" of leg

31. PERONEUS Knee tendon Tibio-fibula, distally, Draws shank against

Stout, posterior and ankle calca- thigh (before leaping
between nos. 30 and neum) or swimming); also
32a extends or twists foot

32. TIBIALIS a) TIBIALIS proximate end of Flexes ankle

Group of three ANTICUS LONGUS astralagus &
ventral muscles next Coastal end of femur calcaneum
to tibio-fibula by
Two heads: to
 long tendon
Two heads: to

33) TIBALIS Middle part of tibio- Astralagus Flexes ankle

ANTICUS BREVES fibula

E TIBIALS Alone entire tibio- Astralagus Flexes and twists

POSTICUS fibula ankle
Long, under no. 29

34. EXTENSOR Medial end of femur Astralagus Extends shank

CRURIS
Small, under nos.
31a and 31b

I. Answer the following questions.

1. Classify the muscles according to action and give an example of each.

2. How are muscles related to joints?

3. How do muscles work, by shortening or lengthening?

4. What are some of the effects of exercise on a muscle? What happens to muscles during
prolonged illness?

5. Find the Achilles tendon above your heel. Why is the tendon so named?
6. Why do the fibers of obliquus externus and obliquus internus run in different direction? Based
on your answer, what do you think are their functions?

7. Give specific examples of antagonistic muscles.

II. Draw and identify the different parts of the muscular system in a frog.

Anterior View:

Lateral View:
Posterior View

Conclusion: