CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- used by cell especially our brain

How to convert our first digestion

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• Food is masticated in the oral cavity and turn into bolus upon entering the esophagus.
• It reacts with the hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach as well as other enzymes and is turned
into chyme. Some amino acid absorption takes place here.
• Once it enters the small intestine, there is a release of bile which neutralized the pH of the
stomach’s gastric juices, as well as emulsify lipids for it to be absorbed.

Starts with mouth-with any food, meat,food, lipids and carbohydrate, digestion start with mouth
Mastication or masticated-first process of food turning into a bolus- means ball like structure
Bolus-mixture of food and saliva, means ball like structure.
Amylase-salivary amylases in the mouth, type of enzyme that only targets starches such as amylopectin
and amyloses (starch carbohydrates)

Take note:
Starch is a polysaccharide, a complex structure of carbohydrates. To breakdown the big molecule into
smaller disaccharides. Breakdown or hydrolize or cut the complex polysaccharides into smaller unit.
Next of mouth is esophagus then stomach

Stomach -highly acidic, it contain hydrochloric acid which has ph 1-2 level. Enzymes highly sensitive to
temperature. Enzymes has specific temperature. It has specific lower and higher temperature. If so
enzymes will die or sleep.
Amylase-6-7 pH level of optimal temperature, will die or inactivated in stomach because of pH level 1-2.

Mouth -bolus-esophagus-stomach-intestine

Instestine -site

Small intestine-lactase maltase, sucrase, pancreatic amelase

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

• More enzymes, as well as gut bacteria break down most of the food material ingested.
• Most of the absorption occurs in the small and large intestines as the food is broken down into
individual molecules by the enzymes and bacteria.
--
ROUTE OF DIGESTION

• Mouth
o Salivary amylases – hydrolysis of α-glycosidic linkages in starch and glycogen to produce
smaller polysaccharides and disaccharide maltose
o Minimal absorption as food is swallowed quickly
• Stomach
o Salivary amylase gets inactivated because of stomach acidity
o No carbohydrate digesting enzymes present in stomach

--
ROUTE OF DIGESTION

• Small intestine
o Pancreatic α-amylase breaks down polysaccharide chains into disaccharide maltose
• Outer membrane of intestinal mucosal cells
o Disaccharidase enzymes convert disaccharides to monosaccharides
▪ Maltase - Converts maltose to glucose
▪ Sucrase - Converts sucrose to glucose and fructose
▪ Lactase - Converts lactose to glucose and galactose
Small intestine-site for carbohydrates digestion because of enzymes such as pancreatic amylase-
only found in small intestine.
o Maltase - Converts or substrate is maltose to breakdown or hydrolyze 2 units of glucose
o Sucrase - Converts sucrose to glucose and fructose (monosaccharides)
o Lactase - Converts lactose to glucose and galactose

Endpoint:
Glucose, fructose and galactose.
What type are fructose, glucose and galactose? Monosaccharides

Main role of carbohydrate digestion-to convert bigger carbohydrates poly, such……into monosaccharides
unit such as glucose, fructose, and galactose to go to root of absorption.
--
ROUTE OF ABSORPTION
o Carbohydrate digestion products (glucose, galactose, and fructose) are absorbed into the bloodstream
through the intestinal wall
o Intestinal villi are rich in blood capillaries into which the monosaccharides are actively transported
o Protein carriers mediate the passage of the monosaccharides through cell membranes
o Galactose and fructose are converted to products of glucose metabolism in the liver

Glucose will used in the glycolysis

Different sugar have different routes

GLYCOLYSIS

Metabolic pathway by which glucose is converted to two molecules of pyruvate (a C3 molecule)

• Produces ATP and NADH-reduced coenzymes
• Occurs in two stages - Six-carbon (Energy Investment) and three-carbon (Energy Production) stages
Glycolysis has two stages- the 1st to 5th stages is called the six-carbon (energy investment) because all
reactant will become six -carbon chain. There is an expense of ATP
Investment-expense gagastos to work the reaction.
6th to 10th stages- are called three-carbon (Energy Production) stages. All reactant are 3 carbon. Release
energy or tubo or kita. Release of ATP.

• In many metabolic pathways, there are reactions that are known as committed steps. Many reactions in
metabolic pathways are reversible.
• Committed steps are irreversible reactions and usually involve the addition/removal of phosphate
groups or CoA
-committed step are irreversible reaction (one arrow only in reaction)
-however, Reversible reaction- there is forward and backward reaction or arrow

Why cells needs ATP glycolysis-our body does not have any glucose or starvation we have a
process called gluconeogesis (building up of glucose)

When starve
gluconeogesis (building up of glucose)-our body find the pyruvate or lactate in the body to
making it into a glucose unit. Used reversible reaction same as glycolysis, different step or
enzyme. However, it does not used committed step (STEP 7, unique for glycolysis).

Glycolysis-only commited step or irreversible reaction unique, only in glycolysis

Glycolysis-Breakdown of glucose
Lysis-means breakdown
Glycol-means glucose
Breaking glucose to produce endpoint: pyruvate and ATP energy to used by cells in our body
specifically brain, muscles and even red blood cells uses glycolysis pathway
 Take note: Every 1 glucose that will go into glycolysis will produce 2 molecules of pyruvate
and 2 ATP
Example: 5 molecules of glucose that will undergo glycolysis will produce 10 molecules of
pyruvate and 10 molecules of ATP.
10 glucose-20 pyruvate and 20 ATP

Glycolysis produce reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ if H is accept it is

now called NADH or reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.
NADH if removed H, it will now oxidized resulting NAD+ nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide.
Accept hydrogen becomes reduced
Releases hydrogen will become oxidized NAD+
--
Overview of
Glycolysis Pathway
1-5 step-gagastos ng atp
6-10-released of ATP
Reduced NAD
--
Step 1: Formation of glucose 6-phosphate

a. Phosphorylation of glucose - A phosphate group from ATP is attached to the hydroxyl group on carbon
6 of glucose
b. Reaction is catalyzed by hexokinase
c. Energy required is derived from ATP hydrolysis
What is reactant?glucose
Product-glucose 6-phosphate
Enzyme-hexokinase, that targets the substrate glucose
Process is Phosphorylation of glucose –
work -phosphorylation (add Phosphate group PO43-)

where can we see the substrate? In reactant or product? Glucose or glucose 6-phosphate? Reactant, the
glucose side. The hexokinase enzyme targets the substrate glucose, its work is phosphorylation reaction.
So hexokinase adds phosphate group into the reactant glucose. Therefore,hexokinase thargets glucose that
adds phosphate group or PO43-.

However where does the phosphate group added or come from?? Therefore, it needs coenzyme (rich in
phosphate group) ATP (it means of triphosphate it has structure of 3 phosphate)

ATP TO ADP- since ATP has 3PO43-, it gives to the hydrogen and reduced its phosphate group now
called ADP or adenosine diphosphate 2PO42-, so we will now have a product of Glucose 6-phosphate
(means that in glucose 6 structure carbon has a phosphate group).

Step 1-expense of ATP to proceed of phosphorylation reaction.

Step 2: Formation of fructose 6-phosphate

a. Glucose 6-phosphate is isomerized to fructose 6-phosphate by phosphoglucoisomerase

Reactant- Glucose 6-phosphate

Enzyme- Phosphoglucose isomerase
Work- isomerase, (to change the structure of the reactant)
Product-Fructose 6-phosphate

Phosphoglucose isomerase enzyme change the structure of Glucose 6-phosphate where the
work of enzyme is isomerase to change the structure of pyran (six side ring) to furan (five) structure.

Product-Fructose 6-phosphate
This is reversible reaction-this is not committed step (irreversible reaction),SO THIS is also used in
gluconeogenesis.

Note
Question: is there ATP used in STEP 2? No , to know that there is expense of ATP it needs to have
phosphorylation reaction.
Expense-phosphorelation
Produce ATP
--
Step 3: Formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

a. Phosphorylation reaction
b. Energy derived from ATP hydrolysis
c. Enzyme involved – Phosphofructokinase

Reactant- Fructose 6-Phosphate

Enzyme-phosphofructokinase
Work-phosphorylation (adds PO43- in the reactant)
Coenzyme-ATP
ATP to ADP gives to the first carbon and six cafrbon that’s why it is bisphosphate
Product-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Is step 3 committed step? Yes, since it is irreversible reaction or committed step, means it is only for
glycolysis
--
Step 4: Formation of two triose phosphates

a. C6 biphosphate is split into two C3 monophosphate species

b. Two C3 species formed are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
c. Reaction catalyzed by aldolase

Reactant-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Enzyme-aldolase (split into two molecules or product of reactant )
Coenzyme:No
Product-Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
Used in Gluconeogenesis-reversible
G3P-only g3p only proceed in glycolysis
Step 5: Formation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

a. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is isomerized to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

b. Enzyme involved - Triosephosphate isomerase

So in step 5 it need DHAP to cenver into G3P

Reactant-DHAP
P-G3P
E-Triosephosphate isomerase
Work-isomerase (change structure or position)

2 carbonyl will go into 3 position, and hydroxyl group will go into 2nd position
Coenzyme-No, meron ba tayong tinggal sa reactant or dinagdag?? NO, we don-t need atp and NAD+

Step 6: Formation of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

a. Reaction catalyzed by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
b. A molecule of the reduced coenzyme NADH is a product of the reaction
c. Source of the added phosphate is inorganic phosphate (Pi)
d. Carboxylate ion and phosphate (Pi) are joined together to form the bisphosphate product

How many G3P to proceed into step 6? 2

From step 4 and DHAP into G3P in step 5 in proceeding into step 6
1 glucose – 2 pyruvate and 2 ATP

Step 6
There is 2 reactant that proceed in step 6
R-G3P
Enzyme- G3P dehydrogenase (removal of hydrogen in reactant and adding phosphate group PO43-)
-remove the hydrogen in the structure, when removing the hydrogen it needs coenzyme which is NAD+
(oxidizing agent) and 2Pi inorganic phosphate which is freely moving (stand alone).
Product-1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate

2NAD+ + 2Pi = 2 PRODUCT RELEASE

--

Step 7: Formation of 3-phosphoglycerate

a. Diphosphate species is converted back to a monophosphate species
b. An ATP-producing step – C1 high-energy phosphate group of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to
an ADP molecule to form the ATP
c. Enzyme involved - Phosphoglycerokinase
d. Two ATP molecules are produced for each original glucose molecule

Reactant-1,3-Bisphosphate
Enzyme-Phosphoglycerokinase
Work-Dephosphorylation (de means removal of phosphate of reactant)
Coenzyme-ADP (removal of phosphate and accept by ADP)
Release ATP- 2

Two of 1,3 Bisphosphate- release of two Phosphate and release product two of 3-phosphoglycerate
and two molecule of 2ATP

Phosphorylation-expense of ATP is Dephosphorylation to release ATP

This is commited step

--
Step 8: Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate
a. Involves isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate
b. Phosphate group moved from carbon 3 to carbon 2
c. Enzyme involved – Phosphoglyceromutase

Reactant- 3-phosphoglycerate
Enzyme-phosphoglyceromutase
Work-isomerization (change of position of phosphate group from 3 carbon group to 2nd position of carbon
group)
Product-2-Phosphoglycerate
Co-enzyme-not need, No
Not a committed step

--

Step 9: Formation of phosphoenolpyruvate

a. Alcohol dehydration reaction - Results in another high-energy phosphate group containing compound
b. Enzyme involved - Enolase

Reactant is 2-Phosphoglycerate
Enzyme-enolase
Work-dehydration process (removal of H2o or hydrogen)
Remove water that stand alone
Coenzyme-not need any source to accept it
Removal of H2O in 2nd and 3rd position
Product-Phospoenolpyruvate and H20

--
Step 10: Formation of pyruvate

a. High energy phosphate group is transferred from phosphoenolpyruvate to an ADP molecule to produce
ATP and pyruvate
b. Enzyme involved - Pyruvate kinase
c. Two ATP molecules are produced for each original glucose molecule
Reactant-Phosphoenolpyruvate catalyzed by enzyme
Enzyme-Pyruvate Kinase
Work-dephosphorylation (remove PO43-) that accepts by coenzyme
Coenzyme-ADP
2ADP to produce 2ATP and 2 Pyruvate

Committed step-irreversible

--

SUMMARY OF ATPs IN GLYCOLYSIS

This is an overview of the ATP production in glycolysis:

Overall equation for glycolysis:

Glucose + 2NAD+ + 2ADP + 2Pi  2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP + 2H+ + 2H2O

Overall net is 2ATP

1 glucose release 2 pyruvate , 2 ATP an……
--
Regulation of Glycolysis
• Step 1 - Conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate by hexokinase
o Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate (feedback inhibition)
• Step 3 - Conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase
o High concentrations of ATP and citrate inhibit enzyme activity
• Step 10 - Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate by pyruvate kinase
o Enzyme is inhibited by high ATP concentrations
o Both pyruvate kinase (Step 10) and phosphofructokinase (Step 3) are allosteric enzymes

regulation-enzyme
-inhibited-pinapastop a certain enzyme
Committed step- Step 1, step 3 and Step 10

step 3-committed-rate limiting step of glycolysis, phosphofructokinase (slowest enzyme, pinakamabagal

na enzyme)
Step 10-pyruvate kinase-ATP
Enzymes are being regulated
Gigisingin nalang
Regulatory enzyme- step 1,3,10

--
FATES OF PYRUVATE
• Pyruvate is most commonly metabolized in one of three ways, depending on the type of organism
and the presence or absence of O2.
• Pyruvate is to recognize that glycolysis needs a continuing supply of NAD+.
• If no oxygen is present to reoxidize NADH to NAD+, then another way must be found to
reoxidize it.

Tatlong silbi-
 1.Oxidative process- presence of oxygen, pyruvate will go to citric acid cycle or kreb cycle and
electron transport chain in mitochondria.
TO further produce amount of 30-32 ATP

Again, pyruvate is being converted into Acetyl CoA if there is a presence of oxygen to process in
citric acid chain and electron transport chain in mitochondria to produce 30-32 ATP

Why mitochondria is called powerhouse of a cell? It is because of seen citric acid chain and
electron transport chain that can produce bigger amount of ATP, about 30-32 ATP produce.

Pyruvate can be converted into lactate by presence of oxygen-

Kumain ng breakfast and extreme exercise-there will be no oxygen, instead of pyruvate a nd ETC,
it will go to lactate it will now have cramps because there is no oxygen there is lactate acid
formation or cramps.
Ethanol formation-found in yeast.

1. Oxidation to Acetyl CoA

• Under aerobic (oxygen-rich) conditions, pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA by pyruvate

dehydrogenase complex.
 • Pyruvate formed through glycolysis crosses the two mitochondrial membranes and enters the
mitochondrial matrix.
• Acetyl CoA molecules produced from pyruvate enter the citric acid cycle. Most pyruvate formed
during glycolysis is converted to acetyl CoA.

Decarboxylation COO and using CoA-SH and hydrogen is being accepted by NAD+

Acetyl CoA-will go to krebs cycle and ETC to go in mitochondria to create 30-32 ATP
--

Glycolysis happen in cytosol to convert our food into energy which will go to the powerhouse of the cell
which is mitochondria
Pyruvate will need to conver Acetyl CoA to go to mitochondria by presence of oxygen.
Glycolysis Quiz
Read the questions carefully. 
Points:
10/10
Correct
1/1 Points
1.Statement I: 2 molecules of ATP is produced in 3-phosphoglycerate formation in step 7 of
glycolysis
Statement II: 2 molecules of ATP is produced in pyruvate formation in step 10 of glycolysis
Both of the statements are TRUE
Both of the statements are FALSE
Statement I is TRUE, Statement II is FALSE
Statement I is FALSE, Statement II is TRUE
Correct
1/1 Points
2.Which type of carbohydrates are easily absorbed by the cells of the intestines?
monosaccharides
oligosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides
Correct
1/1 Points
3.What enzyme catalyzes the cleaving of Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into a G3P molecule and a
DHAP molecule?
aldolase
phosphofructokinase
G3P dehydrogenase
triosephosphate isomerase
Correct
1/1 Points
4.Which steps of the glycolysis pathway uses ATP for phosphorylation process?
Step 1 and Step 2
Step 1 and Step 3
Step 2 and Step 3
Step 2 and Step 4
Step 3 and Step 4
Step 4 and Step 5
Correct
1/1 Points
5.Glucose 6-phosphates isomerizes from a furan to a pyran structure
TRUE
FALSE
Correct
1/1 Points
6.Describe how phosphofructokinase enzyme is being regulated
through feedback inhibition
low ATP concentration
high NADH concentration
low NADH concentration
Correct
1/1 Points
7.The presence of stomach acidity inactivate salivary amylases in the stomach.

TRUE
FALSE
Correct
1/1 Points
8.2 molecules of glucose undergo glycolysis pathway. How many pyruvate and net ATP molecules
will be produced at the end of the reaction
2 pyruvate and 2 ATP
3 pyruvate and 3 ATP
4 pyruvate and 4 ATP
6 pyruvate and 6 ATP
Correct
1/1 Points
9.Pancreatic amylase are found in the ________ and breaks down polysaccharide chains into
disaccharide maltose in.
small intestine
mouth
stomach
esophagus
Correct
1/1 Points
10.This metabolic pathway converts glucose into two molecules of pyruvate and ATP?
Glycolysis
Glycogenolysis
Glycogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
Qualitative Analysis of Lipids

LIPIDS

Ø Fatty acids found in living organisms.

Ø Insoluble to water
Ø Soluble to organic nonpolar solutions (Ether, alcohol and etc.)

Lipids has carboxyl group which is polar molecular, hydrophillic. Oxygen

--
FATTY ACIDS
Ø Tail – hydrophobic “water fearing”
Ø Head – hydrophilic “water loving”
Ø Main component of soap where tails are soluble to dirt and the head are water soluble.
Ø When head is attached to Glycerol to form a fat, the whole molecule is hydrophobic.
--

STRUCTURE
Ø Simple lipids: Fats, oils, waxes and steroids
Ø Complex lipids: Phospholipids, Sphingolipids and Glycolipids
Ø Derivatives: Hormones and fat-soluble vitamins
--
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF LIPIDS

Solubility test
Principle
Ø “Like dissolves like”
Ø A solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar chemical structure.
Ø Physical properties of fatty acids are determined by the length and degree of unsaturation of the
hydrocarbon chain.
Ø Solubility also depends on the polarity

--

Solubility test
Procedure
Ø Take the lipid sample in three different test tubes by labelling it as A, B and C.
Ø Then, add different solvents like water, ethanol and chloroform in each test tubes A, B and C.
Ø Shake the tubes and allow it to stand for 1 minute.
Ø Check the solution for whether lipid is soluble or insoluble.

--
Translucent Spot Test
Principle
Ø characterized by a translucent and greasy spot.
 Ø The lipid will not wet the filter paper, unlike water.
Ø The lipids will form a greasy or translucent spot due to their greasy texture and penetrate the filter
paper.
Ø Unlike lipids, the spot of water will disappear from the paper.

Procedure
Ø Take a filter paper.
Ø Add one drop of water at one end and a drop of oil or lipid at the other end.
Ø Observe the appearance of a translucent spot on the filter paper.
--
Translucent Spot Test
Positive result: Translucent spot will appear on the filter paper.
Negative result: Translucent spot will not appear on the filter paper.

Acrolein Test
Principle
Ø Used to detect the presence of glycerol and fat.
Ø Based on the dehydration reaction, in which the water molecules are removed from the glycerol
by adding reagent potassium hydrogen sulfate.
Ø The reaction between glycerol and potassium hydrogen sulfate results in acrolein formation,
which is characterized physically by the release of the pungent smell due to formation of saturated
aldehyde.
--
Acrolein Test

Procedure
Ø Take 1 ml of the lipid sample in a test tube.
Ø Add crystals of potassium hydrogen sulfate.
Ø Heat the solution for a few minutes.
Ø Smell the test tube for the pungent smell.
--
Acrolein Test

Positive result: If glycerol present in the sample, it will give a pungent smell.
Negative result: If glycerol is absent in a sample, it will not produce a pungent smell.
--
Baudouin Test
Principle
Ø This test is used to detect the presence of sesame oil. Sesame oil gives a characteristic rose
red color with concentrated hydrochloric acid and furfural solution. Vanaspati ghee
contains 5% sesame oil while pure desi ghee does not contain sesame oil.
Baudouin Test

Procedure
Ø Take 5ml of melted ghee in a test tube.
Ø Add 5ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 2-3% of furfural solution in alcohol to it.
Ø Keep it aside for 5 to 10 minutes.
Ø If there is the appearance of rose-red colour then the given ghee contains vanaspati.

Positive result: It indicates presence of sesame oil, turns into red color
Negative result: The color of the solution will not change.
--
Unsaturation Test

Principle
Ø Used to detect the unsaturated fatty acids or double bond in a lipid sample.
Ø Double bonds are found in the structure of unsaturated fatty acids, which becomes saturated by
taking up either bromine or iodine.
Ø If the lipid contains more unsaturated fatty acids or more double bonds, it will take more iodine.
 Ø Procedure
Ø Take 5 ml of chloroform and 5 ml of Huble’s iodine reagent in a beaker, giving pink colour to the
solution.
Ø Add lipid sample drop by drop and shake vigorously, until pink colour disappears.
Ø Count the number of drops added to chloroform and Huble’s iodine solution until pink colour
disappears. The number of drops determines the taking up of iodine by the unsaturated fatty acid
of lipids.
--
Unsaturation Test

Positive result: Pink colour will disappear by the addition of unsaturated fatty acids.
Negative result: Pink colour will not disappear.

--
Metabolic Disorders Related to Carbohydrate Metabolism
&
CASE STUDY 2: Erythrocyte PK Deficiency

Metabolic Disorders Related to

Carbohydrate Metabolism
--
Some Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders

Lactase deficiency disorder

Galacotosemia- INABILITY TO CONVERT GALACTOSE TO GLUCOSE

Glycogen storage diseases-boun gerky??

Diabetes mellitus

Galacotosemia

cmdslnCA
---
Lactose Intolerance-common for Asians
7-8 percent in breast milk
Mas mababa sa cow milk
Inability to hydrolyzed to release glucose
Lactose cannot produce glucose carbohydrate and galactose carbohydrate

Mouth esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine-site where the digestion of all carbohydrate because carbohydrate enzyme present such as
lactase, maltase, sucrase and pancreatic amylase

Large intestine

What happen when there is deficiency in lactase??

,genetic defect , age Physiologicallyu decline, injury in intestinal in mucus lining

What happen if lactose is not digest?

Lactose is polar molecule

Water polar
Lactose intolerance-inability to hydrolized of glucose and galactose,.fullness, discomfort, prone to
attracting water, the lactose
Bacteria will be the one to cut the lactose, will not produce glucose and galactose,
Flatulence and abdominal pain-

Causes: bacteria in large intestine,

Reason why we eat cheesecake pandesal, starches, end point of carbohydrate is glucose , galactose and
fructose-eto kaya ng intestine natin iabsorb that’s why it needs to convert it into glucose, galactyose
anf fructose.

All foods that we ate is large bigger moleules such as starches, .

--

--
Galactosemia
Enzymes in Leloir pathway:
• galactokinase (GALK)
• galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT)
• UDP-galactose 4′-epimerase (GALE)

Glucose in glycolysis produce pyruvate + ATP energy.

The end product undergo mitochondria (krebs cycle and ETC) 30-32 ATP
Fructose, galactose
When body is lacking glucose,
Fructose and galactose to convert to glucose
Galactosemia-inability to convert galactose to convert to glucose. There is defect in it.

Enzymes in Leloir pathway:

• galactokinase (GALK)
• galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT)
• UDP-galactose 4′-epimerase (GALE)

Glucose 6 phosphate-step 2 in glycolysis

• When there is much glucose and galactose- it will converted into glycogen (UDP-galactose 4′-
epimerase (GALE))

--
Galactosemia
Classic galactosemia, also known as galactosemia type I, mutation/deletion in the GALT gene-most
severe
• near or total absence of GALT activity
• most common and most severe form of galactosemia
--

Galactosemia
Galactosemia type II results from mutation in GALK1
- GALK deficiency
- very rare and largely results in cataracts
--
Galactosemia
Galactosemia type III results from mutation in GALE
- GALE deficiency
- severe form is extremely rare and resembles GALT deficiency

if sira is it needs to convert into glycogen

--
Galactosemia

• All newborn screening programs typically include galactosemia

Recommendations:
ü lactose restriction
ü Infants are offered a lactose-free, soy-based formula

Lactose release into galactose and lactose

-mahirap makita unless severe na
New born screening-fort early diagnosis and treatment

Autosomal
Can prevent by restricting lactose

--
Glycogen Storage Diseases
If body does not need glucose, eating rice, body has ability to store glucose into storage form into
glycogen
Glycogen metabolism or glycogenesis or building up of glycogen

If there is deficiency in enzyme,

1 Glycogen synthetase

2 Brancher enzyme (GSD-IV)

3 Debrancher enzyme (GSD-III)

4 Glucose-6-phosphatase (GSD-I)
CSAMCLMASMCAS
-
--
---

Von geierke
Defective into the 4 enzyme or glucose-6-phosphate
--
Glycogen Storage Diseases (GSD)

Italian boy with glycogen storage disease type I

Type I or von Gierke disease. This is the most common form of GSD. People with type I don’t have the
enzyme needed to turn glycogen into glucose in the liver. Glycogen builds up in the liver.
Von geierke
Defective into the 4 enzyme or glucose-6-phosphate
Glycogen build uop in glycogen

--

--
dIABETES
GDM-only happens kapag pregnant, then mawawala din

Type 1
Immune system destroys system
Insulin release from pancreas
Insulin cannot produce- cell cannot produce energy-glucose cannot enter into cell
-glucose cannot enter cell
-cannot be prevented
-start in childhood
-babies-nakadikit sa baby na insulin
Pancreas cannot produce cells
Mataas blood glucose level, cannot penetrate

Type 2-there is presence insulin-insulin cannot bind into glucose, glucose cannot enter into cell
-there is insulin, however, glucose cannot bind insulin receptor, there is sensitivity
-cell cannot absorb glucose

GDM-gestational diabete
-long term consequences-obesity, diabetes hypertension, kidney diseases.
Why buntis? There are hormones that produces by uterus that decrease effectivity of insulin.
-that’s why glucose will go into baby. Instead the normal glucose level that reach or give to baby, it will
much more.
Clinical Presentations of Diabetes
--
Case Study# 2
Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency
--
Embden-Meyerhof Pathway (Glycolysis)
 • In glycolysis, one molecule of 6-C glucose is converted in 10 enzyme-catalyzed steps to two
molecules of 3-C pyruvate.
• Why is glycolysis so important to organisms? Because glucose is the only source of energy or
ATP. When there is defect in glycolysis it will have problem into mitochondria… etc kreb and
ETC

Step 1 to 5 puhunan, expense of ATP

STEP 6 TO 10-kita, production of ATP

Endpoint of glycolysis is pyruvate will go into mitochondria process by ETC and kreb cycle to produce
30-32 ATP

• Why is glycolysis so important to organisms? Because glucose is the only source of energy or
ATP. When there is defect in glycolysis it will have problem into mitochondria… etc kreb and
ETC
•
-inborn errors of krebs cycle-journal that has problem with krebs cycle, the usual pattern degregation of
muscle, cannot walk or problem to muscle. Among of all, muscle has more mitochondria. Kreb cycle and
ETC -mitochondria

--
Pyruvate produced in glycolysis can be utilized by cells in several ways. In animals, pyruvate is normally
converted to acetyl-coenzyme A, which is then oxidized in the TCA cycle to produce CO2. When
oxygen is limiting, pyruvate can be converted to lactate. Alcoholic fermentation in yeast converts
pyruvate to ethanol and CO2.

Glycolysis has 3 fates,

Aerobic oxidation- when body has enough oxygen- acetyl-CoA go producing citric acid cycle and
oxidative phosphorylation

Anaerobic (lactic acid fermentation)- low oxygen no present, kumain ng tinapay-nagexercise ng matindi,
muscle cells-instead to the acytyl coa will go to oxidative, it will not, the tinapay will go to lactate,
cramps or pulikat into muscle cells.
--
Erythrocyte Metabolism: Generation of 2,3 DPG

2,3-BPG = Primary regulator of hemoglobin-O2 affinity

The Rapoport-Luebering shunt. These reactions occur in the red blood cell to produce 2,3-
bisphosphoglycerate to modulate oxygen binding to hemoglobin, ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ATP,
adenosinetriphosphate; BPG, bisphosphoglycerate.

Red blood cells-does not have mitochondria, if muscle cell has many mitochondria,

what is the source of RBC? Only glycolysis pathway, if there is a problem, it means you would have
anemia, it means pyruvate kinase difficiency. Pyruvate kinase -end product of glycolysis.

Glycolysis pathway -will give energy into RBC, it is important because of rapoport-luebering where the
1,3 bisphosphoglycerate will coverted into 2,3 BPG by mutaseto 3 phosphoglycerate will have
Rapoport-Luebering shunt.
2,3 bpg-is the primary regulator of hemoglobin which will give O2 affinity which is regulator of
RBC.
--
Why do erythrocytes need ATP?

(1) maintenance of glycolysis

(2) maintenance of the electrolyte gradient between plasma and red cell cytoplasm through the
activity of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-driven membrane pumps
(3) synthesis of glutathione and other metabolites
(4) purine and pyrimidine metabolism
(5) maintenance of hemoglobin's iron in its functional, reduced, ferrous state
(6) protection of metabolic enzymes, hemoglobin (rapoport), and membrane proteins from oxidative
denaturation
(7) preservation of membrane phospholipid asymmetry.
When SARS-CoV-2 takes over…
Special topic on nucleic acid which is about SARS-CoV-2 or the causative agents of COVID-19

SARS-CoV-2- AVIRUS, A TYPE OF VIRUS THAT WOULD TRANSMIT TO PEOPLE FROM

ANIMALS TO PEOPLE. What are the structure and symptoms, when will need to have a test
(antigen test, antibody test)

Outlines
Ø Viruses and their Genetic Material
Ø Origin of SARS-CoV-2 and its Structure
Ø SARS-CoV-2 Replication Cycle- focus
Ø Mode of Transmission-animals to people, people to people
Ø Signs and Symptoms of COVID-19
Ø Detection and Treatment
Ø COVID-19 Vaccines-differences of vaccines
Ø SARS-CoV-2 variants-muatgents or variants

Ø Transmission electron microscope image shows SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, isolated
from a patient in the U.S. Virus particles are emerging from the surface of cells cultured in the lab. The
spikes on the outer edge of the virus particles give coronaviruses their name, crown-like.NIAID-RML
Ø https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/novel-coronavirus-structure-reveals-targets-
vaccines-treatments
--
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Central Dogma- by francis Crick is a unilateral flow from DNA to Protein. Does not
change or interchange the flow that’s why it is unilateral flow.

Unilateral flow of genetic information in all organisms whether animals, plants, humans
and also bacteria. The flow is from DNA to RNA and lastly Protein.

DNA-stores our genetic information which wiil be replicated by DNA polymerase along
those DNA or genes that can be expressed (Gene expression).

Gene expression-.genetic information would be transcripted and translated into proteins.

If your DNA becomes a certain protein, it called gene is being expressed in central dogma
to have genetic information to be transcripted and translated into proteins.

DNA is transcripted into mRNA or messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. And this mRNA
will now translated into R proteins of what we call codons. Which the three codons can be
translated into proteins by help of ribosomes.

Where are the ribosomes located? Rinosomes in cytosol and endoplastic reticulum as well.

This is unilateral flow of central dogma of molecular biology from DNA transcribe into
RNA then translated into proteins by ribosomes.

The Extended Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

However, there are certain organisms that’s seems violate the central dogma of molecular
biology.

Violation
Here we have reverse transcriptase- this part is not exhibited by living organisms such as
bacteria,animals and humans. Means cannot be seen in bacteria, animals and humans but
can be seen in viruses such as the retroviruses.
Another type of violation of central dogma of molecular biology which is the conversion
of positive (+) Sense RNA into negative (-) Sense of RNA by what we call by RNA
Dependent and RNA Polymerase (RDRP).

Here is the single stranded positive (+) Sense RNA used as template to replicate and
caused by corona viruses/SARSCOV-2. This unusual flow of genetic information that re
commonly exhibvited by viruses.

Viruses usually violated the Unilateral flow of Central Dogma from DNA to RNA to
Proteins but instead in Virus is from DNA to have Reverse transcription or transcriptase
and conversion of template of positive (+) Sense RNA into negative (-) Sense of RNA.
--

Viruses and their Genetic Material

Different classification of viruses by the Baltimore Classification of Viruses.

For living organisms, we have DNA as genetic material. Humans, animals, bacteria and plants have genetic
material.
Viruses-They also have genetic material but some viruses commonly has RNA as genetic material.

Group 1 and Group 2 has DNA as the genetic material, it contains the information of the virus.
Group 1-has double stranded DNA, example is smallpox like human they have dsDNA that used as a
template to create mRNA. It is like the central dogma of living organisms using DNA into RNA while

Group 2-positive sense single stranded or +ssDNA material, like HPV that causes cervical cancer. The
singles stranded DNA converted in double stranded DNA into mRNA.

These Group 1 and Group 2 follows the unilateral flow of central dogma which is from DNA into mRNA

Group 3-group 6-RNA as genetic material.

Group 3-double stranded RNA or dsRNA like Rotaviruses that causes gastroenteritis. The double stranded
RNA is converted directly transcribed into mRNA. It dfoes not have DNA stage, which violated the central
dogma. RNA is genetic material.
Group 4-genetic material is positive sense of RNA or +ssRNA. Example is Coronaviruses example is
SARS CoV-2. Another violation of central dogma, it does not undergo of DNA stage as genetic material
instead it uses positive sense single stranded RNA (+ssRNA) as a template to produce a negative sense
single stranded RNA (-ssRNA) to transcribed mRNA. So, it doers not undergo a DNA stage.

Group 5- negative single stranded RNA or -ssRNA like measles, since it is negative single stranded -
ssRNA, it will now transcribed into mRNA. Does not undergo DNA stage of the central dogma.

Group 6- +ssRNA-RT or positive sense single stranded RNA with Reverse Transcriptase like HIV. This
one, another violation in the central dogma, instead DNA-RNA-into proteins, instead this HIV, is from
RNA coverted back to DNA to produce mRNA, it uses reverse transcriptase to convert back RNA to DNA,
then transcribed into mRNA. This process violated the central dogma of molecular biology. RNA-DNA-
mRNA-Proteins.

Group 7- dsDNA-RT. Example is Hepatitis B from dsDNA-RT converted to +ssRNA coverted back into
dsRNA then, it uses dsRNA to converted back to dsDNA by using RT or reverse transcriptase that will
transcribed into mRNA.

Group 3-5 does not undergo DNA stage

Group 6-uses reverse transcriptase uses DNA.
Group 7 ddDNA template of positive

Group 4-positive sense into negative sense to allow replication of their genomic material to produce
mRNA fro structural protein. Does not DNA stage.

Viruses and their Genetic Material

Summary
--
SARS-CoV-2 (Origin and Structure)

Severe acute respiratory syndrome-like coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of COVID-19

Bats are the primary host of SARS-CoV-2

COVID-19 was first detected in Wuhan, China in December 2019

This is the virus that can caused covid-119 symptoms started from Wuhan,China in December 2019.
Why it is called Novel virus?

The primary host is bats consumed as foods, it is possible that these bats has intermediate host direct
contact with the humans as host, it is now have a human to human transmission. It is called Novel
Virus because it is the first time that this virus is being transmitted into human since the primary
host is only in the bats, once it is being passed into human, there is human transmission, it is now
called as novel virus.
--

SARS-CoV-2 (Origin and Structure)

Capsid
Nucleocapsid protein (N)

Envelope
Membrane protein (M)
Envelope protein (E)
Spike protein (S)
Genetic material
(+) ssRNA

The structure of SARS-Cov-2 IS MINIMALISTIC OR SIMPLISTIC.

WE ONLY HAVE THREE OF VIRUS

Capsid-proteiction
Nucleocapsid protein (N)

Envelope-such as
Membrane protein (M)
Envelope protein (E)
Spike protein (S)

Genetic material-information
(+) ssRNA

-very deadly
Bergmann & Silverman, 2022
--
SARS-CoV-2 Life Cycle

Life cycle of SARS-CoV-2

Targets the ACE2 receptors- is only found in lungs, nasal cavity, enterocytes in the digestive tract, as
well as the alveolar cells has ACE2 receptors. This is the reason why the SARS-CoV-2 is flu-like
symptoms which targets the lungs because lungs has ACE2 receptors. The point of attachment of this type
of virus is ACE2 receptors.
One structure of SARS-CoV-2 is spike proteins which will be the point of attachement of SARS-CoV-2.

When SARS-CoV-2 inhale or is in the body, it will find or search a cells that expressed or have ACE2
receptors which present in the lungs, nasal cavity, enterocytes in the digestive tract, as well as the alveolar
cells. The spike proteins of SARS-CoV-2 that can be seen or protrudes will attached in the ACE2 receptors
WHICH IS THE POINT OF ENTRY of SARS-CoV-2 in the body. Once there is attachment or binding of
spike proteins into the ACE2 receptors, it allows the entry of virus into the cells.

Once it is inside of the cells, it will dismantle, it will releases its viral genome or its genetic information.
The first step of the virus upon the released of viral genome is to translate its positive sense single stranded
RNA translated by the ribosomes in the cells.
Take note- viruses does not contain ribosomes to replicate or translate of protein, instead it uses the
ribosomes of host cells to translate viral polymerase protein. And this will enter the RdRp, when it contain
genetic information of positive Sense RNA to make a template of negative Sense RNA, it will uses the
RDRP or the RNA Dependent and RNA Polymerase. This RDRP will use SARS-CoV-2 genome to
replicate its genome.

What happen is attachment of Spike proteins in ACE2 , releases the positive sense RNA genome using
the RdRp that will make RNA genome negative sense. And this RNA single stranded negative sense can
now be packed in what we call virions, this RNA negative sense uses to make another positive sense
RNA as the template for nucleocapsid (N), Spikes protein (S), membrane proteins (M), and envelope
proteins (E) inside the host cells.
Again for transcription for structural proteins we have to make nucleocapsid (N), Spikes protein (S),
membrane proteins (M), and envelope proteins (E). Once transcription have taken place next is
translation.
Structural protein such as Spikes protein (S), membrane proteins (M), and envelope proteins (E) will go
in the endoplasmic reticulum which arranges the MSE membrane while nucleocapsid (N) plus another
positive sense RNA (genetic information) will attached to each other that binds with SME membrane that
will make or form a mature virions that will released by the body called exocytosis. Once it is released, it
 will affect other cells inside of our body.

--
Mode of Transmission

 Airborne spread of SARS-CoV-2 has been fully recognized

SARS-CoV-2 transmits mostly between people at close range through inhalation
The transmission of SARS-CoV-2 after touching surfaces is now considered to be
relatively minimal.

Through inhalation

WHO recognized that SARS-Cov-2 is airborne. Always observe proper wear of masks.

“Improving indoor ventilation and air quality will help us all to stay safe.”
Tang et al., 2021; Merawska & Milton, 2020

Signs and Symptoms

For omicron variant-contqagious- fever sore throat and body aches. Problems in mutated variant there is
differences in symptoms.

Signs and Symptoms

--
Detection and Treatment
There is tests that can detect COVID-19 as per detection and treatment such as RT-PCR Test, Antigen Test
and Antibody test.
However for detection, widely accepted are RT-PCR Test, Antigen Test. Identify the timing

This is the graph of RT-PCR

There is sensitivity-even after small concentration of viral load, it can be detected and among these three
test the most sensitive is RT-PCR, because eventhough at the onset of the 28 days of symptoms it will be
detected. It does not mean that it will influence or nakakahwa into others.

Antigen Test- example in the graph is you experience symptoms in the first day, in the 3rd day, you can
now have antigen test because viral load is highest to the 3rd to the 4rth day. After 7 days or a week , it will
now lower the viral load. Both of them can detect a virus.

RT PCR is more sensitive because even smaller amounts can detect virus because even 28 days can detect
pathogens.

Antibody test-not preferrable into the detection of the virus. The body will make antibodies 1-3 weeks after
infection, can only detect past infection, antibodies can made 1-3 weeks after infection. It will check if you
are healing or it will end the onset of infection in the body. This is the reason, antibody is not used to detect
a virus.

--
Detection and Treatment

Antigen Test
-immunoassays that detect the presence of a specific viral antigen, which implies current viral infection.
-performed on nasopharyngeal or nasal swab specimens
-return results in approximately 15–30 minutes
antigen test-not sensitive, small amounts of viral load cannot detect 3-4th day of symptoms. Timing
3-4th day
Detection and Treatment

Antibody Testing
• should NOT be used to establish the presence or absence of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection.
• Antibodies—including IgM, IgG, and IgA—against S and its subunits can be detected in
serum within 1-3 weeks after infection-pagaling kana neto
• a positive antibody test result DOES NOT indicate immunity against SARS-CoV-2
-cannot tell the current infection. Can tell if you have previous infection because of the presence of
antibodies specifically IgG and IgM like of pregnancy test.

Detection and Treatment

Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)

Ø detect one or more viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) genes and indicate a current infection or a
recent infection
Ø time to results can vary (~1–3 days)
Ø performed on upper respiratory specimens, such as nasopharyngeal, nasal mid-turbinate,
anterior nasal, or saliva

-even the smallest amount of the virus

-using qPCR-checking the genomic material of the virus
Nanodrop-check on how many concentration of DNA and RNA of the sample specifically of DNA or RNA
of the sample in SARS COVID.
SAMPLING-USING RT reaction that will used in qPCR
Sampling-through nose or nasopharyngeal.
Red cross-saliva expensive because around 2500 pesos. Buong araw genomic material of one virus.
Matagal reaction, expensive time consuming.
mADALING MADEGRADE AND dna at RNA pag gumagamit ng RT-PCR. Maraming reaction to
produce reaction. There is possibility of degrading the DNA genomic material.

Can used cold environment such as ice or dry ice if laboratory of RT-PCR.

Detection and Treatment

Real-Time Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR)

When using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), the number of
cycles it takes for fluorescence to exceed a specific threshold value above the background level
is the cycle threshold, or Ct, value. Lower Ct values indicate a higher viral load in the original
sample.

If flatline, below the threshold means negative

If graph above or protruding up threshold means positive.
 A COVID-19 positive patient with a cycle threshold (C t) of 10 has a higher viral load than a
COVID-19 positive patient with a Ct of 30. In fact, the first patient will have one million times as
many viral particles as the second patient.

The lower the Ct value the higher the viral load

The the higher the Ct value, the lower the viral load
----

Detection and Treatment

“There is insufficient evidence to support the use of ivermectin to treat or prevent Covid-19, and improper
use, as well as the possible occurrence of medication interactions, may result in serious side effects
requiring hospitalization.”
Temple et al., 2021

Ø At-home treatment
Ø OTC drugs to treat mild symptoms
Ø Remdesivir-exhibits or targets RNA replication therefore prevents the generation of negative
sense single stranded RNA and to not make structural protein.
Ø Molnupiravir
Ø Paxlovid
Ø Baricitinib-january 2022 new
Ø Sotrovimab- january 2022 new

Is ivermectin is good? There is insufficient evidence can treat SARSCoV symptoms, because it is only for
parasites.

We have antiviral drugs whichb exhibits replication process

World Health Organization, 2022; Drain, 2022; Beigel et al., 2020

COVID-19 Vaccine

Watch videos

Because of this, subunit vaccines often include chemical agents called

adjuvants which are designed to stimulate a stronger immune response
and booster shots may also be required. Not all vaccines are designed to introduce
antigens to the body. Some work by using cells in a patients body to produce the antigens themselves.
Examples include viral vector vaccines and mRNA vaccines. In both cases, the goal is to get a short fragment
of genetic code taken from the target pathogen.
In this case, the SARS COV-2 virus that causes COVID-19 into the patient cells by hijacking the cellular
mechanisms. These kinds of vaccines mimic the way viruses normally reproduced during natural infection, but
rather than creating copies of the virus, the cells only produce large amounts of antigen that then usually
trigger a strong immune response. Viral vector vaccines achieve this by inserting the genetic code for the
antigen into a harmless virus, which effectively acts like a delivery system. To get the code into the cells
without causing disease
Vector based vaccines can be complex to develop, but they can trigger strong immune responses without the
need for adjuvants and in theory one type of vector can be used to deliver code for a range of different
antigens which can speed up vaccine development.

Nucleic acid Vaccines

acid vaccines like M RNA and DNA vaccines also involved inserting genetic code into cells to produce
antigens. But instead of using viruses to deliver the code, these vaccines take a more direct approach that
involves inserting the codes directly into cells, either by attaching it to a molecule or by forcing it into cells
using a gene gun.

These vaccines can be quick and cheap to develop, but they are a relatively new technology.

With hundreds of COVID-19 vaccines now in development, it's likely that a mixture of different approaches
will be needed in order to stop the global spread of this coronavirus and end the pandemic.
---
Pfizer and Moderna uses mRNA that codes the specific spike proteins. It will be the one that trigger the
immune response.

Astrazenica and Janssen-uses viral vector or modified version of virus, it will contains spike proteins
mRNA that will enter your host cells and trigger immune response.

Protein subunit vaccines

It will deliver spike proteins inside the body to trigger immune response, it is not yet available in the
phillipines.

Sinovac-inactivated form SARS-CoV-2, foreign materials, trigger foreign materials.

Pfizer, moderna astrazenica, janssen and Novavax-uses spike protein to trigger immune response.
 Pfizer and moderna- mRNA agad to code spike proteins

Astrazenica and janssen has modified viral vector that has mRNA of spike proteins.

Novovax- spike proteins directly deliver inside the human body

Sinovax-inactive form of virus

mRNA vaccines

Viral Vector vaccines

--
Protein subunit vaccines
Whole virus vaccines

SARS-CoV-2 Variants
--
SARS-CoV-2 Variants
“Although it seems reasonable to expect that new SARS-CoV-2 variants will emerge over time, experts
agree that it is essential that current vaccines continue to be administered to as many people as
possible. This is because the protection offered by the vaccines is greater than the risk of vaccine
escape from potential new variants.”
 Chemical Biology (Biochemistry Laboratory) Reviewer

Blood typing- they are different based on the attachment of the carbohydrates in red blood cells.

-Why is there certain blood types that is universal donor and acceptor?
-------

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates:
Most abundant organic compounds. In nutrition- Carbohydrates are nutrients that gives us energy
to do work and also to maintain body processes.
• Act as storehouses of chemical energy. Which energy called ATP which is cells battery. ATP is
the chemical energy in our body.
• Supportive components in plants. Such as cellulose, our body does not have enzymes to digest
cellulose.
• Essential components of nucleic acids. Such as DNA and RNA- both contain ribose sugar
• “Hydrate of Carbon”
 Carbohydrates:
• “Hydrate of Carbon”
-has two major classifications ACCORDING TO THEIR CARBON SUCH AS:
 Polyhydroxy aldehyde- Polyhydroxy means many OH (hydroxyl group) 2 or more hydroxy
group. C=OH. Also called aldoses
 Polyhydroxy ketone- C=OC / C=OR

Major Groups of Carbohydrates

ALDOSES
Polyhydroxy aldehydes- also called aldoses.
Subdivided into three carbons called trioses;
Four carbons-threoses
Five carbons-pentoses
Six carbons-hexoses
All of the has C=OH bonding in structure. They are aldoses

All of these are monosaccharides

 Major Groups of Carbohydrates
KETOSES-Polyhydroxy Ketoses

three carbons called trioses;

Four carbons-threoses
Five carbons-pentoses
Six carbons-hexoses
Ketoses has C=OC

All of these are monosaccharides

 Carbohydrates:

• A polyhydroxyaldehyde or polyhydroxyketone, or a substance that gives these compounds on

hydrolysis.
• Classifications based in the unit of sugar:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides-2 unit of sugar combined by a glycosidic bond
3. Oligosaccharides 3-10 unit of sugar (monosaccharide units)
4. Polysaccharides-hundreds to thousands of monosaccharide units present

What are Carbohydrates?

-most of the matter in plants, except water, is carbohydrate material
-Carbohydrates account for 75% of dry plant material and are produced by photosynthesis
Such as:
-Cellulose-Structural element
-Starch/glycogen-Energy reservoir,
Starch- considered as polysaccharide they contain hundreds
Glycogen-1,000,000 units of sugar
Excess sugar in blood-stored in glycogen, reservoir

Plants and Carbohydrates

-it is estimated that more than half of all organic carbon atoms are found in the carbonate materials
of plants
-human uses for carbohydrates of the plant kingdom extend beyond food
-Carbohydrates in the form of cotton and linen are used as clothing
-Carbohydrates in the form of wood are used for shelter and heating and in making paper
Photosynthesis
-Process in which plants produce carbohydrates using carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy

C02+H2O+solar energy-----carbohydrates+O2

Function of Carbohydrates in the Human Body

-Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy-ATP

-Carbohydrate storage, in the form of glycogen, provides a short-term energy reserve
-Carbohydrates supply carbon atoms for the synthesis of other biochemical substances (proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acid)
-caRBOHYDRATES FORM PART OF THE STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK OF DNA AND RNA
MOLECULES- DNA AND RNA has ribose sugar which is an aldopentose, aldo means C=OH, pentose
means 5 carbons
-Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural components of cell membranes- in this part we have
galactose-a brain sugar since we have glycolipids and glycoproteins (has carbohydrates attachment)
-Carbohydrates linked to proteins function in a variety of cell-cell and cell-molecule recognition
processes

Classification of Carbohydrates

-Empirical formula of simple carbohydrates-

Cn H2nOn or Cn (H2O)n (hydrate of C)
n=carbons
n=is the number of atoms

-Carbohydrate:Polyhydroxy aldehyde, ketone, or a compound that produces such substance upon

hydrolysis

Monosaccharides
Contain single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit
-cannot be broken down into simpler substances by hydrolysis reactions
-contain 3-7 C atoms
-5 and 6 carbon species are more common
-pure monosaccharides water soluble white, crystalline solids-water is polar, means that your
monosaccharide, single unit of sugar is polar
-Like dissolves Like
-polar dissolves in polar
-non-polar dissolves in polar
-so monosaccharidfes cannot dissolves in non-polar solvents (dichloromethane)
-monosaccharides-Glucose and fructose
The Eight Essential Monosaccharides

-structures of the eight monosaccharides essential to humans. All are used for the synthesis of the
glycoconjugate components of cell walls, and glucose is also the body’s primary source of energy.

D-Galactose,
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose),
N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-galactose)-
-all used in blood types

Disaccharides
• Contain 2 monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other by glycosidic bond
• Crystalline and water soluble substances
• Common disaccharides - Table sugar (sucrose) and milk sugar (lactose)
• Upon hydrolysis, they produce 2 monosaccharide units
Hydrolysis-reduced form/breaking the glycosidic bond
2 mono become 1 di
1 di become 2 mono

Formation of Disaccharides
• Two monosaccharides can react to form a disaccharide
• One monosaccharide acts as a hemiacetal and the other as an alcohol
• Resulting ether bond is a glycosidic linkage

• Formation of Disaccharides
• First carbon of the first sugar will be link to the fourth carbon of the second sugar

• Note: Removing the hydroxyl group in 2nd sugar and hydrogen in 1st sugar forming water
molecule.
• Neutrophile-O
• Electrophile-C
• -glycosidic bond
•

Maltose (Malt Sugar)

• Structurally made of 2 D-glucose units, one of which must be α-D-glucose, linked via an α(14)
glycosidic linkage
• Digested easily by humans because of an enzyme that can break α(14) linkages
• Baby foods are rich in maltose
 Alpha-opposite
Beta-same side

Cellobiose
• Produced as an intermediate in the hydrolysis of the polysaccharide cellulose
• Contains two D-glucose monosaccharide units, one of which must have a β configuration,
linked through a β(14) glycosidic linkage
• Cannot be digested by humans
 Lactose
• Made up of β-D-galactose unit and a D-glucose unit joined by a β(14) glycosidic linkage
• Milk is rich in the disaccharide lactose
• Lactase hydrolyzes β(14) glycosidic linkages

----
Lactose Intolerance or Lactase Persistence

• Lactose is the principal carbohydrate in milk

• Human mother’s milk - 7%–8% lactose
• Cow’s milk - 4%–5% lactose
• Lactose intolerance is a condition in which people lack the enzyme lactase needed to hydrolyze
lactose to galactose and glucose
• Deficiency of lactase can be caused by a genetic defect, physiological decline with age, or by
injuries to intestinal mucosa
• When lactose is undigested, it attracts water causing fullness, discomfort, cramping, nausea, and
diarrhea
• Bacterial fermentation of the lactose further along the intestinal tract produces acid (lactic acid)
and gas, adding to the discomfort

Sucrose (Table Sugar)

-special disaccharides,special sugar (both designation of alpha and beta)
• The most abundant of all disaccharides and found in plants
• Produced commercially from the juice of sugar cane and sugar beets
• Sugar cane contains up to 20% by mass sucrose
 • Sugar beets contain up to 17% by mass sucrose

• Pyranose - Cyclic monosaccharide containing a six-atom ring (pyran)

• Furanose - Cyclic monosaccharide containing a five-atom ring (furan)
• -special disaccharides because one is pyran and one is furan

Oligosaccharides
• Contain three to ten monosaccharide units covalently bonded to each other
• Free oligosaccharides are seldom encountered in biochemical systems
• Usually found associated with proteins and lipids in complex molecules
• Serve structural and regulatory functions

Oligosaccharides
• Carbohydrates that contain 3–10 monosaccharide units bonded to each other via glycosidic
linkages
• Generally present in association with other complex molecules
• Raffinose - Made of 1 galactose, 1 glucose, and 1 fructose
• Stachyose - Made of 2 galactose, 1 glucose, and 1 fructose units
• Commonly found in onions, cabbage, broccoli, and whole wheat
 Onions, broccoli, cabbage, potatoes and kamote has raffinose and stachyose which are an
oligosaccharides.
-We do not have enzymes in the body to digest raffinose and stachynose. Kamote pampautot
because of raffinoses and stachyose.

Blood Types and Oligosaccharides

- Blood typing is one of the example of oligosaccharides
- Blood typing differ in the attachment of the carbohydrates in the red blood cells in
the surface.
- Type A- has extra N-acetylgalactosamine
- Type B has an extra Galactose
- Universal donor is O, and AB is a universal recipient

• Human blood is classified into four types

A, B, AB, and O
 • The basis for the difference is the type of sugars (oligosaccharides) present
• Blood of one type cannot be given to a recipient with blood of another type
• A transfusion of wrong blood type can cause the blood cells to form clumps, a potentially
fatal reaction
• People with type O blood are universal donors, and those with type AB blood are universal
recipients

Polysaccharides
-contain many monosaccharide units covalently bonded
-number of monosaccharide units varies from a few 100 units to 50,00 units
Examples:
-Cellulose-Paper,cotton,wood
-Starch-bread,pasta,potatoes,rice,cron,beans and peas

-hundreds to 1 million unit.

• Polymers of many monosaccharide units bonded with glycosidic linkages.
• Polysaccharides are not sweet and do not show positive tests with Tollen’s and Benedict’s
solutions, whereas monosaccharides are sweet and show positive tests.
• Limited water solubility.

1. Starch
 Storage polysaccharide: Polysaccharide that is a storage form for monosaccharides and
used as an energy source in cells.
i. Glucose is the monomeric unit.
ii. Storage polysaccharide in plants.
 Types of Polysaccharides Isolated from Starch:
i. Amylose – unbranched;α(14) glycosidic bonds- 1 glycosidic bond only
ii. Amylopectin – branched; α(14) and α(16) -2 or more glycosidic bond
 amylopecti
n
2 or more glycosidic bond

2. Glycogen

 Storage polysaccharide in humans and animals.

 Contains only glucose units.
 Branched chain polymer with α(14) glycosidic bonds in straight chains and α(16) in
branches.
 Contains up to 1,000,000 glucose units.
 Excess glucose in blood is stored in the form of glycogen.
-if hungry, it can easily access, glycogen as an energy reservoir.

3. Cellulose

 Linear homopolysaccharide with β(14) glycosidic bond.

 Contains up to 5000 glucose units with molecular mass of 900,000 amu
-Cotton has 95% cellulose and wood 50% cellulose
 Humans do not have enzymes that hydrolyze β(14) linkages and so they cannot digest
cellulose.
 Animals also lack these enzymes, but they can digest cellulose due to the presence of cellulose-
producing bacteria

-we do not have in the body of cellulase

-It serve sas dietary fiber in food and readily absorbs water resulting in softer stools
-20-35g of dietary fiber is desired everyday

Alpha-opposite
Beta-same side

Starch-amylase
Cellulose-cellulase

-madaling thesis is with amylase, enzymatic reaction, 100g (5000 pesos) 2-3 months
Thesis ni maam natividad-92,000 for inflammation, cyclooxygenase enzyme to cut the
prostaglandin formation
4. Glycogen
  Storage polysaccharide in humans and animals.
 Contains only glucose units.
 Branched chain polymer with α(14) glycosidic bonds in straight chains and α(16) in
branches.
 Contains up to 1,000,000 glucose units.
 Excess glucose in blood is stored in the form of glycogen.
-if hungry, it can easily access, glycogen as an energy reservoir.

Glucose in the process of glycogenesis forming glycogen, only if there is an excess of glucose

Starving-quick use of glucose in the process of glycogenolysis

5. Chitin (not included sa video)

• Linear polymer with all β(14) glycosidic linkages.

• It has an N-acetyl amino derivative of glucose.
-Summary of glycosidic bond

6. Hyaluronic acid (not included sa video)

 Alternating residues of N-acetyl- β-D-glucosamine and D-glucuronate.
 Highly viscous and serve as lubricants in the fluid of joints as well as vitreous humor of the eye.

Glucoronate,,,, NAC G
What is the glycosidic bond between glucuronate connected to NAC G? Beta (1-3) or B (1-3)

What is the glycosidic bond of NAC G and glucorinate? The answer is B(1-4) or Beta (1-4)
7. Heparin( not included sa video)
-it is glucorinate suphate

• Blood anticoagulant- alpha 1-4

• Acidic polysaccharide
Type AB does not have antibodies, that’s why it is universal acceptor.
Type O has anti A and anti B bodies, that’s why it is universal donor
So the answer?
The storage reported presence of three blood types only: A, B and O.
There is excess hemorrhaged or other complications.
References:
• Bettelheim (Biochemistry)
• Stoker 3rd edition

Qualitative Tests for Carbohydrates

Theory
u Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield
polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.  Aldehydes (–CHO) and ketones ( = CO) constitute the
major groups in carbohydrates.
u Carbohydrates are mainly divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides,oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides. The commonly occurring monosaccharides includes glucose, fructose, galactose,
ribose, etc. The two monosaccharides combine together to form disaccharides which include
sucrose, lactose and maltose.  Starch and cellulose fall into the category of polysaccharides, which
consist of many monosaccharide residues.

Molisch Test
u This is a common test for all carbohydrates larger than tetroses. The test is on the basis that
pentoses and hexoses are dehydrated by conc. Sulphuric acid to form furfural or
hydroxymethylfurfural, respectively. These products condense with α-naphthol to form purple
condensation product.

α-naphthol-highly cancerous, do not touch without double masks, and double masks, inhaling small
amount can lead to cancer.

Purple ring-There is a carbohydrates,positive

No purple ring-no carbohydrates present,negative

Fehling’s Test

u This forms the reduction test of carbohydrates. Fehling’s solution contains blue alkaline cupric
hydroxide solution, heated with reducing sugars gets reduced to yellow or red cuprous oxide and
is precipitated. Hence, formation of the yellow or brownish-red colored precipitate helps in the
detection of reducing sugars in the test solution.
blue alkaline cupric hydroxide solution (cuprous exide)-Blue color solution
presence of red color or brownish red-presence of carbohydrates
blue color-negative result after heated
 Benedict’s Test
u As in Fehling’s test, free aldehyde or keto group in the reducing sugars reduce cupric hydroxide
in alkaline medium to red colored cuprous oxide. Depending on the concentration of sugars,
yellow to green color is developed . All monosaccharides are reducing sugars as they all have a
free reactive carbonyl group. Some disaccharides, like maltose, have exposed carbonyl groups
and are also reducing sugars, but less reactive than monosaccharide.

Aldehyde-test for monosaccharides

Traces of reducing sugar-less amount

Barfoed’s Test

u Barfoed's test is used to detect the presence of monosaccharide (reducing) sugars in solution.
Barfoed's reagent, a mixture of ethanoic (acetic) acid and copper(II) acetate, is combined with
the test solution and boiled. A red copper(II) oxide precipitate is formed will indicates the
presence of reducing sugar. The reaction will be negative in the presence of disaccharide sugars
because they are weaker reducing agents. This test is specific for monosaccharides . Due to the
weakly acidic nature of Barfoed's reagent, it is reduced only by monosaccharides.
 Tests for monosaccharides
If we tests disach, oligo or poly-they will not have red precipitate

Seliwanoff’s Test

u It is a color reaction specific for ketoses. When conc. HCl is added, ketoses undergo dehydration
to yield furfural derivatives more rapidly than aldoses. These derivatives form complexes with
resorcinol to yield deep red color. The test reagent causes the dehydration of ketohexoses to form
5-hydroxymethylfurfural. 5-hydroxymethylfurfural reacts with resorcinol present in the test
reagent to produce a red product within two minutes. Aldohexoses reacts so more slowly to form
the same product.

If you tests aldoses-it will have negative results.

Ketose-red cherry color, sucrose and fructose

Iodine’s Test

u This test is used for the detection of starch in the solution. The blue-black colour is due to the
formation of starch-iodine complex. Starch contain polymer of α-amylose and amylopectin which
forms a complex with iodine to give the blue black colour.
 Black formation
-polysaccharides-startch
-triplex iodine resulting to black color

When fructose adopts a furanose structure which carbon is the anomeric carbon?
(1 Point)

C-1

C-2-eto ata bryyy, page 17 sa reviewer

C-3

C-4
2.
 Amylose is an unbranched form of starch, formed via α(1->4) and α(1->6) glycosidic bonds
(1 Point)

True

False-eto kasi α(1->6) glycosidic is amylopectin-bry

3.
The following carbohydrates exist as a disaccharide, EXCEPT:
(1 Point)

Fructose- hindi ba ito since mono ( Ito yung tama )-eto tama

Cellobiose

Sucrose

Maltose
4.
Based on its structure, glucose can be classified as an aldohexose
(1 Point)

True-oo eto bryy

False
5.
In Haworth projection, α means that the -OH on the anomeric carbon is on the side of the ring
opposite from the terminal -CH2OH.
(1 Point)

True-yup bryyy

False
6.
When glucose adopts a pyranose structure which carbon is the anomeric carbon?
(1 Point)

C-1-eto alam ko bryyy-eto iyan page 20 sa reviewer

C-2

C-3

C-4
7.
All of the following share common glycosidic linkages, EXCEPT
(1 Point)
Maltose-hindi eto

Amylose-hindi eto

Sucrose-eto bryyy, page 27

Glycogen-hndi etoo
8.
Which of the following are correct match? Choose 3 correct matches. 
(3 Points)

Acidic polysaccharide that acts as an anticoagulant-HEPARIN-hindi eto kasi glucuronic

acid etoo 

An unbranched polymer with α(1->4) glycosidic bonds only- AMYLOSE-eto tama pero
tama din yung chitin hahaha

A linear polymer with β(1->4) glycosidic linkages-CHITIN-tama rin eto hahhaha—-       Linear
polymer with all β(14) glycosidic linkages.-eto nalang tauu-bry salamat bhie sa assurance
<3 kakafall-HAHAHAH BREY

A polysaccharide- Glucose- mali ito mono yung glucose

9.
Which of the following determines blood type B in the ABO blood typing system?
(1 Point)

the extra presence of N-acetyl-D-galactosamine antigen pacheck-MALI ETO BRYY KASI ang
last carbohydrates ang nagdedetermine kung anong blood type since blue yun at glucose

the extra presence of  D-galactose antigen hindi ba ito? -eto ata iyon bry kasi di pwedeng
galactosamine (  ito ang tama )

the extra presence of both N-acetyl-D-galactosamine and D-galactose antigens

10.
An α(1 → 4) glycosidic bond is found in which of the following?
(1 Point)

lactose-( hindi ba beta ito?) oo bry

maltose-alpha-eto tama pero wait-eto sagot

sucrose-nopee kasi alpha 1 and beta 1-2 eto

all of these 
11.
A β(1 → 4) glycosidic bond is found in which of the following?
(1 Point)

lactose-tama bry 

maltose

sucrose

all of these
12.
In hyaluronic acid how is D-glucuronate linked to N-acetyl-D-glucosamine?
(1 Point)

by an α(1 → 3) glycosidic bond

by an α(1 → 4) glycosidic bond

by a β(1 → 3) glycosidic bond pacheck SAME AKO-tama bry

by a β(1 → 4) glycosidic bond

13.
Choose 5 common examples of polysaccharides
(5 Points)

amylose kasama ito ata kasi polymers siya diba? -oo pala bryy kaso sabe common example eh
ang amylose ay types bryy. 

glycogen

glucose

cellulose

hyaluronic acid

heparin
14.
In hyaluronic acid how is N-acetyl-D-glucosamine linked to D-glucuronate?
(1 Point)

by an α(1 → 3) glycosidic bond

by an α(1 → 4) glycosidic bond

 by a β(1 → 3) glycosidic bond

by a β(1 → 4) glycosidic bond-yup bry

Carbohydrates (QUIZ)-Laboratory CHB

Please read the following instructions and questions carefully. 

Points:
20/20
1.Seliwanoff's test results in a _______________ color due to the presence of ________________

(1/1 Point)
Brick Red: aldoses
Cherry Red: ketoses
Cherry Red: hydroxyl
Brick Red: ketoses
2.Choose 4 common examples of polysaccharides

(4/4 Points)
amylose
glycogen
cellulose
glucose
amylopectin
3.These carbohydrates have a functional group aldehyde
(1/1 Point)
Aldoses
Ketoses
4.Which of the following determines blood type A in the ABO blood typing system?

(1/1 Point)
the extra presence of N-acetyl-D-galactosamine antigen

the extra presence of D-galactose antigen

the extra presence of both N-acetyl-D-galactosamine and D-galactose antigens

5.These carbohyrates have a functional group ketone

(1/1 Point)
Ketoses
Aldoses
6.An unknown solution shows a green color when tested in benedict's test. This result
shows ___________. 

(1/1 Point)
traces of reducing sugar
moderate amounts of reducing sugar
large amount of reducing sugar
no presence of reducing sugar
7.Barfoed's test results in ____________ for ___________________

(1/1 Point)
brick red solution: disaccharides only
red precipitate: disaccharides only
brick red solution: monosaccharides only
red precipitate: monosaccharides only
8.Galactose, will give a red copper II oxide precipitate in Barfoed's Test. 

(1/1 Point)
TRUE. Galactose is a monosaccharide

FALSE. Galactose is a disaccharide.

9.Which test detects only monosaccharides?

(1/1 Point)
Silver Mirror Test
Barfoed's Test
Iodine test
Benedicts Test
10.Which of the following determines blood type B in the ABO blood typing system?

(1/1 Point)
the extra presence of N-acetyl-D-galactosamine antigen

the extra presence of D-galactose antigen

the extra presence of both N-acetyl-D-galactosamine and D-galactose antigens

11.The colorimetric result of the Molisch's Test is ___________________

(1/1 Point)
A black solution
A red ring
A purple solution
A purple ring
A brick red solution
A cherry red solution
12.Molisch test gives a purple colored ring at the junction. This test is specifically for
what type of monosaccharides?

(1/1 Point)
pentoses and hexoses
trioses and tetroses
all reducing sugars
amino sugars
13.The following carbohydrates exist as a disaccharide, EXCEPT:

(1/1 Point)
fructose
sucrose
maltose
lactose
14.Choose 4 common functions of carbohydrates. 
(4/4 Points)
energy reservoir
lipid membrane
supportive components of plants
essential components of nucleic acids
basis for differentiating blood types
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