CHAPTER 2

Atoms, molecules and

ions
Dr. K. Pokpas
kpokpas@uwc.ac.za
NCSB, Level 3, Room 3.25
 Chapter Outline
2-1 Atomic structure - protons, electrons, and neutrons
2-2 Atomic number and atomic mass
2-3 Isotopes
2-4 Atomic mass (atomic ‘weight’)
2-5 The periodic table
2-6 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas
2-7 Ionic compounds: formulas, names, and properties
2-8 Molecular compounds: formulas and names
2-9 Atoms, molecules, and the mole
2-10 Chemical analysis: Determining compound formulas
What are ALL materials made of?

Brick House

Bricks
Zoom in

Sand and
Zoom in
Water

Zoom in
What are ALL materials made of?

Human
body

Organs
Zoom in

Cells
Zoom in

Zoom in
All materials made up of ATOMS!
 Atomic Composition
Atoms are composed of smaller subatomic particles
• Protons
–positive electrical charge (+1)
–mass = 1.672623 x 10-24 g
–mass = 1.007 atomic mass units (u)
• Electrons
– negative electrical charge (-1)
– mass = 9.109383 x 10-28 g
– relative mass = 0.0005 u
• Neutrons
– no electrical charge (0)
– mass = 1.674927 x 10-24 g
– mass = 1.009 u
Subatomic Particles Summary
 Atomic Composition

The atom is
mostly empty
space!

• protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

• the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
• electrons in space around the nucleus.
• extremely small. One teaspoon of water has 3 times as many
atoms as the Atlantic Ocean has teaspoons of water.
 Relative atomic mass
Is the ratio of the average mass of one atom of an element to one
twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Masses of atomic particles are expressed in atomic mass units (u).

A carbon atom having six protons and six neutrons in the nucleus is
assigned a mass value of exactly 12 u.
From chemical experiments and physical measurements, we know an
oxygen atom having eight protons and eight neutrons has 1.33291 times
the mass of carbon, so it has a relative mass of 15.9949 (12 u ×
1.33291).(Masses of atoms of other elements are assigned in a similar
manner.)
The atomic mass unit can be related to other units of mass using the
conversion factor:
1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.661 × 10−24 g.
*The term relative atomic mass is exactly equivalent to atomic weight, which is the older term.
 Atomic Number, Z
All atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons in the nucleus, Z

Used to IDENTIFY the element!

13 Atomic number, Z

Al Elemental symbol

26.981 Atomic mass (u)

 Mass number, A

• C -12 atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons

• Mass Number (A) = # protons + # neutrons
• Carbon -12 (12C) has a mass # of 12 u
• Carbon -13 (13C) has a mass # of 13 u (6 + 7) and so
on.
• Elements with different number of neutrons are
called “Isotopes”.
 Isotopes
For a given element X, each isotope of X can be represented by
the symbol show below, where:
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus.
Mass number (A) = total number of nucleons in the nucleus (i.e.,
protons and neutrons).

A
Z X
One nucleon has a
mass of 1 amu Isotopes have the same Z
(atomic mass unit) but different total
a.k.a “Dalton” or u number of nucleons (A).
 Elemental Symbol

Try the following example for Helium!

Step 1: What is its symbol?

A
Z He
 Elemental Symbol

Try the following example for Helium!

Step 2: How many protons does it have?

A
2 He
 Elemental Symbol

Try the following example for Helium!

Step 3: What is the mass number (protons
+ neutrons)?

4
2 He
 Elemental Symbol

Try the following example for

Magnesium!

24
12 Mg
 Hydrogen Isotopes
Hydrogen has 3
isotopes
1 1 proton and 0 neutrons,
H
1
protium

2 1 proton and 1 neutron,

1 H
deuterium

3
1 H 1 proton and 2 neutrons, Ice made from “heavy water” sinks
in “ordinary” water.

tritium
 Isotope Abundance (%)
A sample of water from a lake
will consist almost entirely of H2O
where the H atoms are the 1H
isotope. A few molecules, only
0.015%, will have deuterium (2H)
substituted for 1H. We can
predict this because we know
that 99.985% of all hydrogen
atoms on Earth are 1H atoms.
That is, the abundance of 1H
atoms is 99.985%. Tritium, the
radioactive 3H isotope, occurs
naturally in only trace amounts.

The percent abundance of each element’s isotopes are given by:

 % Abundance

Percentage of
boys and girls
present in a
class of 6
students?

Boys: Girls:
% Abundance % Abundance
2 boys 4 girls
= × 100 % = 33.33% = × 100 % = 66.66%
6 students 6 students
 Isotope Abundance (%)
A sample of water from a lake
will consist almost entirely of H2O
where the H atoms are the 1H
isotope. A few molecules, only
0.015%, will have deuterium (2H)
substituted for 1H. We can
predict this because we know
that 99.985% of all hydrogen
atoms on Earth are 1H atoms.
That is, the abundance of 1H
atoms is 99.985%. Tritium, the
radioactive 3H isotope, occurs
naturally in only trace amounts.

The percent abundance of each element’s isotopes are given by:

 Isotope abundance
The atomic mass (weight) of an element is typically close to the mass of the
most abundant isotope or isotopes. We can calculate the atomic mass from
isotope abundance using the expression in EXAMPLE 2.2.
 Average Height

Find the average height

of the class given that
all the boys are 1.7 m
tall and girls are 1.6 m
tall?

1.7+1.7+1.6+1.6 +1.6 +1.6

Method 1: Av height = = 1.63 m
6 students

33.33 66.66
Method 2: 𝐴𝑣 𝐻𝑒𝑖ght = 100
× 1.7 m +
100
× 1.6 m = 1.63 m

% as a Boy % as a Girl
fraction height fraction height
EXAMPLE 2.2 Calculating atomic mass from isotope abundance
Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes.
One has a mass of 78.918338 u and an abundance of 50.69%.
The other isotope has a mass of 80.916291 u and an abundance of 49.31%.
Calculate the atomic mass of bromine.

𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
% 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1
100
% 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2
+ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2
100

50.69 49.31
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 78.918338 + 80.916291 = 79.90 u
100 100
EXAMPLE 2.3 Calculating isotopic abundances
Antimony, Sb, has two stable isotopes: 121Sb, 120.904 u, and 123Sb, 122.904 u.
What are the relative abundances of these isotopes?

You know the masses of the two isotopes of the element and know that their weighted
average, the atomic mass, is 121.760 u (see the periodic table).

𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 121.760

= 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 121𝑆𝑏 120.904 + 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 122𝑆𝑏 122.904

OR

121.760 = 𝑥 120.904 + 𝑦 122.904

where x = fractional abundance of 121Sb and y = fractional abundance of 123Sb.
Because the sum of fractional abundances of the isotopes must equal 1 (x + y = 1), we solve
the two equations simultaneously for x and y.

Since, y = 1 − x, you can make a substitution for y:

121.760 = 𝑥 120.904 + 1 − 𝑥 122.904

Expanding the equation:

121.760 = 120.904𝑥 + 122.904 − 122.904𝑥

121.760 = 120.904𝑥 + 122.904 − 122.904𝑥

Solving for x:
121.760 − 122.904 = 𝑥(120.904 + − 122.904)
𝑥 = 0.5720

The fractional abundance of 121Sb is 0.5720 and its percent abundance is 57.20%.

This means that the percent abundance of 123Sb must be 42.80% (i.e. 100% - 57.20%).
 The Periodic Table

• Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) developed the modern periodic table.

• He argued that elemental properties are periodic functions of atomic
weights.
• We now know that element properties are periodic functions of the
ATOMIC NUMBERS.
The Periodic Table Features

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Regions in the Periodic Table

Copyright ©2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
• Groups are the vertical columns in the table
• Periods are the horizontal rows in the table
 Group 1 (1A): Alkali Metals
Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs
• Elements in the leftmost column,
Group 1A, are known as the
alkali metals (except H).

• All the alkali metals are solids at

room temperature and all are
reactive with water to produce
hydrogen and basic solutions.

• These metals are only found in

nature combined in compounds
(such as NaCl), never as free
elements.
sodium metal
 Group 2 (2A): Alkaline Earth Metals
Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
• The second group in the periodic table, Group
2A, is also composed entirely of metals that
occur naturally only in compounds.
• Except for beryllium (Be), these elements
react with water to produce basic solutions.
• Most of these oxides (such as lime, CaO) form Magnesium
alkaline solutions; hence, they are known as
the alkaline earth metals.
• Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are the
seventh and fifth most abundant elements in
the earth’s crust, respectively.
Magnesium
oxide
 Group 3 (3A): B, Al, Ga, In, Tl
• Group 3A (aluminum,
gallium, indium, and
thallium) are metals,
whereas boron (B) is a
metalloid.
• Aluminum (Al) is the most
abundant metal in the
earth’s crust at 8.2% by
mass. It is exceeded in
abundance only by the
nonmetal oxygen and
metalloid silicon.
Gallium is one of the few metals that can
be liquid close to room temp.
 Group 14 (4A): C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
• Beginning with Group 14, the groups
contain more and more nonmetals. Diamond
• In Group 14 there is a nonmetal, carbon,
two metalloids, silicon and germanium,
and two metals, tin and lead.
• Because of the change from nonmetallic
to metallic behavior, more variation
occurs in the properties of the elements
of this group than in most others. Quartz, SiO2
• Nonetheless, there are similarities. For
example, these elements form
compounds with similar formulas such
as CO2, SiO2, GeO2, and PbO2.
 Carbon
• One interesting aspect of the nonmetals (like carbon) is that an
element of this type can often exist in several different and distinct
forms, called allotropes.
• Each allotrope has its own physical and chemical properties.
 Group 15 (5A): N, P, As, Sb, Bi
• Nitrogen occurs naturally in the
form of the diatomic molecule
(N2). It makes up about three-
fourths of earth’s atmosphere.

• Phosphorus is essential to life. It

is an important constituent in
bones, teeth, and DNA. The
element glows in the dark if it is
in the air. Its name is based on
Greek words meaning “light-
bearing”.
Phosphorous also has several allotropes,
the most important being white & red
phosphorus.
 Group 16 (6A): Chalcogens
O, S, Se, Te, Po

• Oxygen, which constitutes about 20% of

earth’s atmosphere and which combines
readily with most other elements, is at
the top of Group 16.
• Most of the energy that powers life on
earth is derived from reactions in which
oxygen combines with other substances.
• Sulfur, selenium, and tellurium are often
referred to collectively as chalcogens
(from the Greek word, khalkos, for
copper) because most copper ores contain
these elements. One elemental form of
sulfur has a ring structure.
 Group 17 (7A): Halogens
F, Cl, Br, I, At
• The Group 7A elements, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and radioactive astatine
are nonmetals.
• All exist as diatomic molecules.
• These elements are among the most
reactive of all elements. All combine
violently with alkali metals to form salts
such as table salt, NaCl.
• Collectively they are know as the halogens,
from the Greek “hals”, meaning “salt,” &
genes, “forming.”
Br2 gas
 Group 18 (8A): Noble Gases
He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
• The Group 8A elements, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon,
and radioactive radon are collectively know as the “noble” or
“inert” gases.
• The are the least reactive elements in each period.
• All are gases, and none are abundant on earth or in earth’s
atmosphere.
• It was first thought that the noble gases would not combine
chemically to form stable compounds. However in 1962, a
xenon & fluorine compound was first prepared, (XeF4) opening
the way for the preparation of a number of similar compounds.
 Transition Elements
• Stretching between Groups 2A and 3A is a series of elements called
the transition elements.
• These occupy groups 3 – 12, also referred to as the B-groups (1B
through 8B), in the fourth through seventh periods in the center of
the periodic table.
• All are metals and 13 of them are in the top 30 elements in terms of
abundance in the earth’s crust.
• Most occur naturally in combination with other elements, but a few,
Cu, Ag, Au & Pt are much less reactive and hence they can be found
in nature as pure elements.
• Two rows at the bottom of the table accommodate the lanthanides
[the series of elements between the elements lanthanum (Z = 57)
and hafnium (Z = 72) and the actinides the series of elements
between actinium (Z = 89) and rutherfordium (Z = 104).
Molecules, ions, and their compounds

Elements combine to form compounds. These new species have

different chemical and physical properties from the original
elements.
 Compounds & molecules
• COMPOUNDS are a combination of 2 or more different elements in
definite ratios by mass.

• Atoms of the elements that constitute a compound are always

present in simple whole number ratios e.g. AB, A2B, A2B2 etc. They
are never present as fractional parts e.g. A½B.

• The character of each element is lost when forming a compound.

• MOLECULES are the smallest unit of a compound that retains the

characteristics of the compound.
• Molecular compounds form when a non-metal combines with a non-
metal.
 Molecular formulas

• Molecular Formula: numbers & types of each atom

• Condensed Formula: indicates structure
• Structural Formula: Shows the connections (bonds)
• Molecular Model: Give 3-D perspective
Ions & Ionic Compounds
 Ionic Compounds

• Ionic compounds (between

metals & non-metals) constitute
another major class of
compounds.
• They consist of ions, atoms or
groups of atoms that bear a
positive or negative electrical
charge.
• Many familiar compounds are
composed of ions. Table salt, or
sodium chloride (NaCl) is one
example.
• These are generically referred to NaCl
as salts.
 Ions & ionic compounds

• IONS are atoms or groups of atoms with a formal positive or negative charge.
• Removing electrons from an atom produces a CATION with a positive charge.
• Adding a electrons to an atom produces an ANION with a negative charge.
 Predicting Ion Charges

• metals (Mg) lose electrons to form cations

• nonmetals (F) gain electrons to form anions
• By losing or gaining electrons, an atom often ends up with the same
number of electrons as its nearest noble gas atom.
 Transition metal cations
• These elements may have more than one charge states.
• The oxidation number (charge) found from the formula.
 Charge of an ion
Example: NaCl
chlorine forms a -1 charge so the charge and sodium
forms a +1 charge. So the charge on the molecule is zero.
+1
(+1) + (-1) = 0
-1
 Charge of an ion
Example: FeCl2
chlorine forms a -1 charge so the charge on Fe is +2
X + (-1) + (-1) = 0, x = +2

-1

?
 Charge of an ion
Example: FeCl3
chlorine forms a -1 charge so the charge on Fe is +3
X + (-1) + (-1) + (-1) = 0, x = +3

-1

?
 Naming nonmetal ions

Group 4A Group 5A Group 6A Group 7A

CC4-4-,carbide
, carbide N3-, nitride O2-, oxide F-, fluoride

S2-, sulfide Cl-, chloride

Br-, bromide

I-, iodide

Name derived by adding “ide” suffix.

 Naming metal ions
Main group elements
All metal cations are named after their ‘parent’ element followed by
the word “ion”.

Sodium Na Na+ sodium ion

Aluminum Al Al3+ aluminum ion

Transition elements
Since the transition elements have multiple charge states, each must be
identified uniquely, using the STOCK notation.

Copper Cu Cu+ Copper(I) ion

Cu Cu2+ Copper(II) ion

 Polyatomic ions
• Polyatomic anions are atom clusters with a net charge.

• You must MEMORIZE the names and formulas in Table

2.4

• This requires practice over time!

• Flash cards often help. Have your friends quiz you!

Remember: chem – is – try

Polyatomic Ions
Table 2.4
Note: many O containing anions
have names ending in –ate (or -
ite).

Two polyatomic anions are

named like simple ions with the
suffix (ending) -ide. OH- & CN-.

Most other complex ions end in -

ate or -ite. SO42- & SO32-.

One of the few common

polyatomic cations is the NH4+
ion.
 Polyatomic ions
MORE OXYGEN

Element -ide hypo- -ite -ate per-

(non-metal
(under) (hyper)
anion)
Cl Cl -
ClO1- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-
Chlorine Chloride hypochlorite Chlorite Chlorate perchlorate

NOTE:
1. Remember the "-ate"s
2. Amount of Oxygen increases towards the right i.e. hypo
has less Os than -ite and -ate and per-
3. Charge remains the same!
4. Calculate formulas and names accordingly
 Polyatomic ions
MORE OXYGEN

Element -ide hypo- -ite -ate per-

(non-metal
(under) (hyper)
anion)
Cl Cl- ClO1- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-
Chlorine Chloride hypochlorite Chlorite Chlorate perchlorate

Br Cl- ClO1- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-

Bromine Bromide hypobromite Bromite Bromate perbromate

I Cl- ClO1- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-

Iodine Iodide hypoiodite Iodite Iodate periodate

S S2- SO32- SO42- SO52-

Sulfur Sulfide Sulfite Sulfate persulfate

N N3- NO2- NO3-

Nitrogen Nitride Nitrite Nitrate

 Naming ionic compounds
All ionic compounds are neutral. The individual charges of the cations
and anions must sum to zero.
Metal of fixed charge with a complex ion.
Cation Anion Formula Name
K+ OH- KOH potassium hydroxide
Ca2+ OH- Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
Na+ SO42- Na2SO4 sodium sulfate
Al3+ SO42- Al2(SO4)3 aluminium sulfate
Metal of variable charge with a complex ion
Cation Anion Formula Name
Pb2+ SO42- PbSO4 lead(II) sulfate
Pb4+ SO42- Pb(SO4)2 lead(IV) sulfate
Fe3+ NO3- Fe(NO3)3 iron(III) nitrate
Fe2+ NO2- Fe(NO2)2 iron(II) nitrite
 Properties of ionic compounds
• A metal atom can transfer an electron to a nonmetal atom e.g. during
the formation of LiF from Li(s) and F2(g).
• The resulting cation and anion are attracted to each other by
electrostatic forces.
• The bond distance in an ionic compound is measured as a function of
the sum of the individual ionic radii.
 Electrostatic forces
COULOMB’S LAW

Where, for example, n+ is +1 for Li+ and n− is −1 for F−.

e is the charge on the electron (= 1.602 × 10-19 C) and d is the distance between the
centres of the ions.

• As ion charges increase, the attractive force between oppositely

charged ions increases.
• As the distance between ions increase, the attractive force
decreases.
 Molecular compounds
(Compounds without ions)

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CH4 methane BCl3 boron trichloride

 Naming molecular compounds
When non-metals combine, they form molecules.
They may do so in multiple forms for example, CO “carbon
monoxide” or CO2 “carbon dioxide”. For this reason we need to
specify the number of each atom present by using prefixes.
1 mono 6 hexa
2 di 7 hepta
3 tri 8 octa
4 tetra 9 nona
5 penta 10 deca

BCl3 boron trichloride

SO3 sulfur trioxide
NO nitrogen monoxide (not mononitrogen monoxide)
N2O4 dinitrogen tetraoxide
 Collective units
Dozen Eggs = 12
Case of beer = 24

Ream of paper = Fleet of cars = at

500 sheets least 3
 Counting atoms: The Mole
Mg burns in air (O2) to produce white
1 mole of C12 magnesium oxide, MgO
= 12 g exactly
•How can we figure out how much oxide is
produced from a given mass of Mg?

•Chemistry is a quantitative science—we need

a “counting unit” namely, the MOLE.

•1 mole is the amount of substance that

contains as many particles (atoms, molecules)
as there are in 12.0 g of 12C.

•1 mole of any substance contains 6.022 

602214085700000000000000 1023 particles (or Avogadro’s number of
atoms
particles).
 The mole

To determine 1 mole of Copper (Cu) we count out exactly 6.022 x

1028 atoms of Cu.
 Molar mass
The atomic masses on the Periodic Table also represent the molar
masses of each element in grams per mole (g/mol or g∙mol-1).

Since we can equate mass (how much matter) with moles (how many
particles) we now have a conversion factor that relates the two.

moles × molar mass (g/mol) = grams

The molar mass of a substance is the amount of matter that contains

one-mole or 6.022  1023 particles. aka: Avogadro's number (NA).

Avogadro's number (NA) relates the number of moles to the number of

individual particles:
6.022 × 1023 particles
x mol × -------------------------------- = Number of particles
mol
One-mole amounts
Example: What mass, in grams, is represented by 0.35 mol of
aluminium? (The molar mass of aluminium is 27.0 g∙mol-1).

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the necessary equation ÷

and make the unknown the subject of the
formula. ×
m=nxM
Example: What mass, in grams, is represented by 0.35 mol of
aluminium? (The molar mass of aluminium is 27.0 g∙mol-1).

Solution: Step 2: Substitute the given information into the equation.

m=nxM
?

m=nxM
= 0.35 mol x 27.0 g/mol
=?
Example: What mass, in grams, is represented by 0.35 mol of
aluminium? (The molar mass of aluminium is 27.0 g∙mol-1).
Step 3: Solve the equation. Make sure to include units and
Solution:
confirm that they cancel to give the correct answer.
 Nr. of Atoms
Example: What number of atoms, is
represented by 0.35 mol of aluminium? (The
molar mass of aluminium is 27.0 g∙mol-1).

Solution:
Nr of atoms

6.022 × 1028 atoms

= 0.35 mol Al ×
1 mole Al

= 2 × 1024 atoms
EXAMPLE 2.7 Molar mass and moles
You have 16.5 g of oxalic acid, H2C2O4.

(a) What amount is represented by 16.5 g of oxalic acid? (How many moles?)
(b) How many molecules of oxalic acid are in 16.5 g of the acid?
(c) How many atoms of carbon are in 16.5 g of oxalic acid?
(a) Moles represented by 16.5 g
First calculate the molar mass of oxalic acid:

12.01 g C
2 mol C per mol H2C2O4 × = 24.02 g C per mol H2C2O4
1 mol C
1.008
gH
2 mol H per mol H2C2O4 × = 2.016 g H per mol H2C2O4
1 mol H
16.00 g O
4 mol O per mol H2C2O4 × = 64.00 g O per mol H2C2O4
1 mol O
Therefore: Molar mass of oxalic acid, H2C2O4 = 90.04 g per mol H2C2O4
OR Mm(H2C2O4) = 90.4 g∙mol-1
Now calculate the amount in moles.

The molar mass (expressed here in units of 1 mol/90.04 g) is used in all mass-mole conversions.

1 mol
16.5 g H2 C2 O4 × = 0.183 g mol H2 C2 O4
90.04 g H2 C2 O4

(b) Number of molecules represented by 16.5 g

Use Avogadro’s number to find the number of oxalic acid molecules in 0.183 mol of H2C2O4

6.022 × 1023 molecules

0.183 mol H2 C2 O4 × = 1.10 × 1023 molecules
1 mol

(c) Number of C atoms represented by 16.5 g

Because each molecule contains two C atoms, the number of C atoms in 16.5 g of the acid is

2 C atoms
1.10 × 1023 molecules × = 2.210 × 1023 atoms
1 molecule
Composition
 Describing compound formulas:
Percent composition

Given the relative percentages of each element in a

compound,
10 % X, 20 % Y, 30 % Z etc…
one can find the empirical formula of the compound.

The empirical formula of a compound or molecule represents

the simplest ratio of each element in 1 mol of the compound
or molecule.
 Empirical Formula

CO2 C3O6

vs

1:2 1:2
 Determining the molecular formula

For some compounds, the molecular formula is a multiple of the

empirical formula:

empirical formula molecular formula

n x CXHYOZ  CnXHnYOnZ where n = 2, 3, 4…

Since the molecular formula is a multiple scaled by a factor n, the

molecular and empirical molar masses must also scale by the same
ratio.

molecular formula mass (g.mol-1)

---------------------------------------------------------- =n
empirical molar mass (g.mol-1)
EXAMPLE 2.8 Using percent composition
(a) What is the mass percent of each element in propane, C3H8?
(b) What mass of carbon is contained in 454 g of propane?

The molar mass of C3H8 is 44.09 g∙mol-1

(a) Mass percent of C and H in C3H8:

3 mol 𝐶 12.01 g C
× = 36.03 g C/1 mol C3 H8
1 mol C3 H8 1 mol C
36.03 g C
Mass percent of C in C3 H8 = × 100 = 81.72% C
44.09 g C3 H8

8 mol 𝐻 1.008 g H
× = 8.064 g H/1 mol C3 H8
1 mol C3 H8 1 mol H
8.064 g H
Mass percent of H in C3 H8 = × 100 = 18.29% H
44.09 g C3 H8

(b) Mass of C in 454 g of C3H8:

81.72 g C
454 g C3 H8 × = 371 g C
100 g C3 H8
 Determining the molecular formula
Example: An unknown material composed of: carbon (63.15%);
hydrogen (5.30%) and oxygen 31.55%.
Its molar mass is 304.28 g/mol.
Q: Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of the acid.

Step 1: Create a table and list each component of the molecule as a

heading and list the given % composition of each.
+
Step 2: Assume the total mass of the molecule is 100 g and find the mass
of each element in the 100 g of sample. Note: The % becomes the mass

C H O
% 63.15 5.30 31.55
Assume 100 g
63.15 5.30 31.55
Mass (g)
 Determining the molecular formula
Example: An unknown material composed of: carbon (63.15%);
hydrogen (5.30%) and oxygen 31.55%.
Its molar mass is 304.28 g/mol.
Q: Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of the acid.

Step 3: List the molar mass of each element from the periodic table.
+
Step 4: Determine the number of moles.
C H O
% 63.15 5.30 31.55
Assume 100 g
63.15 5.30 31.55
Mass (g)
Mm 12.011 1.0079 15.999
Moles (63.15 / 12.011) (5.30 / 1.0079) (31.55 / 15.999)
n = m / Mm = 5.28 = 5.26 = 1.97
 Determining the molecular formula
Example: An unknown material composed of: carbon (63.15%);
hydrogen (5.30%) and oxygen 31.55%.
Its molar mass is 304.28 g/mol.
Q: Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of the acid.

Step 5: Identify the smallest number of moles and divide all by this
number to find the ratio. One of the ratios must be equal to one.
C H O
% 63.15 5.30 31.55
Assume 100 g
63.15 5.30 31.55
Mass (g)
Mm 12.011 1.0079 15.999
Moles (63.15 / 12.011) (5.30 / 1.0079) (31.55 / 15.999)
n = m / Mm = 5.28 = 5.26 = 1.97
Ratio
(5.28 / 1.97) (5.26 / 1.97) (1.97 / 1.97)
(divide by lowest
= 2.67 = 2.67 =1
moles)
 Determining the molecular formula
Step 6: If the decimal fraction can easily be expressed as a whole number
fraction. Do so.
0.33 = 1Τ3; 0.25 = 1Τ4; 0.66 = 2Τ3 and so on…
2.66 = 3Τ3 + 3Τ3 + 2Τ3 = 8Τ3
C H O
% 63.15 5.30 31.55
Assume 100 g
63.15 5.30 31.55
Mass (g)
Mm 12.011 1.0079 15.999
Moles (63.15 / 12.011) (5.30 / 1.0079) (31.55 / 15.999)
n = m / Mm = 5.28 = 5.26 = 1.97
Ratio
(5.28 / 1.97) (5.26 / 1.97) (1.97 / 1.97)
(divide by lowest
= 2.67 = 2.67 =1
moles)
8 8 3
Fraction
3 3 3
 Determining the molecular formula
Step 7: Multiply all by the denominator to convert to a whole number.
C H O
8 8 3
Fraction
3 3 3
Whole nr. ratio 8 8 3

Step 8: Determine EF and its molar mass. Find the ratio of the EF molar
mass to MF mass

Empirical Formula (simplest ratio) = C8H8O3

Mm form EF = 8 (12.011) + 8 (1.0079) + 3 (15.999) = 152.14 g/mol

𝑀𝑚 (𝐸𝐹) 152.14 1
= =
𝑀𝑚 (𝑀𝐹) 304.28 2

Therefore, 2 EF = MF
Molecular Formula = C16H16O6
EXAMPLE 2.9 Finding the formula from percent composition
Many soft drinks contain sodium benzoate as a preservative. When you consume the
sodium benzoate, it reacts with the amino acid glycine in your body to form hippuric acid,
which is then excreted in the urine.
Hippuric acid has a molar mass of 179.17 g∙mol-1 and is 60.33% C, 5.06% H, and 7.82% N;
the remainder is oxygen.
What are the empirical and molecular formulas of hippuric acid?
To find the mass of oxygen in a 100.0 g sample of hippuric acid:

𝑚 𝐶 + 𝑚 𝐻 + 𝑚 𝑁 + 𝑚 𝑂 = 100 𝑔
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑚 𝑂 = 100 𝑔 − 60.33 𝑔 𝐶 − 5.06 𝑔 𝐻 − 7.82 𝑔 𝑁
m(O) = 26.79 𝑔

The amount of each element in 100.0 g is

1 mol C 1 mol N
60.33 g C × = 5.023 mol C 7.82 g N × = 0.558 mol N
12.011 g C 14.01 g N

1 mol H 1 mol O
5.06 g H × = 5.02 mol H 26.79 g O × = 1.674 mol O
1.008 g H 15.999 g O
To find the mole ratio, the best approach is to base the ratios on the smallest number of
moles present—in this case, nitrogen.

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 5.023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 9.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

= = = 9 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶/1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 0.558 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 1.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 5.02 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 9.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻

= = = 9 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻/1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 0.558 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 1.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 1.674 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 3.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂

= = = 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂/1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 0.558 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 1.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁

Now we know there are 9 mol of C, 9 mol of H, and 3 mol of O for each mol of N.
Thus, the empirical formula is C9H9NO3
To find the molecular formula we divide the known molar mass of hippuric acid
(179.17 g∙mol-1) by the empirical formula mass.
molar mass of hippuric acid 179.17 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = 1
empirical formula mass 179.17 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

Since the molar mass equals the empirical formula mass, the molecular formula is C9H9NO3.
EXAMPLE 2.10 Finding the formula by combining masses
Oxides of virtually every element are known. Bromine, for example, forms several oxides
when treated with ozone.
Suppose you allow 1.250 g of bromine (Br2) to react with ozone (O3) and obtain 1.876 g of
BrxOy.
What is the empirical formula of the product?

You already know the mass of bromine in the compound, so you can calculate the mass of
oxygen in the compound by subtracting the mass of bromine from the mass of the product.

1.876 𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 – 1.250 𝑔 𝐵𝑟2 = 0.626 𝑔 𝑂

Next, calculate the amount of each reactant.

Notice that, although Br2 was the reactant, we need to know the amount of Br in the
product.
1 mol
1.250 g Br2 × = 0.007822 mol Br2
159.81 g
2 mol Br
0.007822 mol Br2 × = 0.01564 mol Br
1 mol 𝐵𝑟2 g
 Next, we find the amount of O in the product:

1 mol O
0.626 g O × = 0.0391 mol O
16.00 g O

Finally, we find the ratio of moles of O to moles of Br:

0.0391 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 2.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
0.01564 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑟 1.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐵𝑟

The atom ratio is 2.5 mol O/1.0 mol Br.

However, atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers, so we double this to give a
ratio of 5 mol O to 2 mol Br.

Thus, the formula of the product is Br2O5 (dibromine pentaoxide).

EXAMPLE 2.11 Determining the formula of a hydrated compound
You want to know the value of x in blue, hydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4 ∙ x H2O,
that is, the number of water molecules for each unit of CuSO4.
See Exp 1.3
In the laboratory you weigh out 1.023 g of the solid. After heating the solid
thoroughly in a porcelain crucible, 0.654 g of nearly white, anhydrous copper(II)
sulfate, CuSO4, remains.

1.023 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 0.654 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 + ? 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂

First, we find the mass of water in the compound:

m(hydrated compound) − m(anhydrous compound) = m(water) OR

m(CuSO4 ∙ x H2O) − m(CuSO4 ) = m(H2O)

1.023 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 𝑥𝐻2 𝑂 − 0.654 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 = 0.369 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂

Next convert the masses of CuSO4 and H2O to moles:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4
0.369 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂 × 0.654 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 ×
18.02 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂 159.6 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4
= 0.0205 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 = 0.00410 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4
The value of x is determined from the mole ratio:

0.0205 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 5.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
0.00410 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 1.00 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4

The H2O:CuSO4 ratio is 5∶1 so the formula of the hydrated compound is CuSO4 ∙ 5 H2O.

Its name is copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.

 Thank you.

Please don’t forget to contact your

lecturer should you have any questions.