UNIT THREE

TRIANGULATION & TRILATERATION

1. TRIANGULATION

1.1 Introduction
Triangulation as a form of horizontal control is applied when a large area is to be surveyed and
when the method of traversing would not be expected to maintain a uniformly high accuracy over
the entire area. The methods of triangulation require a maximum number of precise angle
measurements and a minimum number of distance measurements. The triangles are develo ped in
to a net of interconnected figures, and lines, calle d base lines, must be measured with extreme
precision in order to compute the sides in the net.

(a)
Fig. 1. 1 triangulation nets (b) (c)

In order to eliminate the effects of random errors as much as possible , triangulation systems
always include more than the minimum number of measurements necessary to fix the positions of
the points in the net.

1.2 Application of triangulation surveys

Triangulation can be used for:
1. The establishment of accurately located control points for surveys of areas.

2. The accurate location of engineering works such as the lo cation of large bridge structures, state
and federal highways, dams, canals, tunnels, and others in order to maintain the necessary
accuracy throughout the system.
3. The establishment of accurately located control points in connection with aerial surveying.
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1.3 Classification of triangulation systems

Triangulation systems are classified according to:
- The angular error of closure in the triangle of the system
- The discrepancy between the measured length of a base line and its length as computed
through the system from an adjacent base.
Accuracies required for horizontal control depend on the type of survey and the ultimate use of the
control points. There are three orders of triangulation based on their uses: first order (primary),
second order (secondary) and third order (tertiary)triangulation.
First order (primary)triangulation is the highest accuracy. It furnishes accurately positioned national
control networks upon which small surveys are base d. Since it covers a large area, the effect of
earth’
s curvature is to be taken into account- geodetic triangulation. It may cover the whole
country (for small countries) or primary grids may be provided (for large countries).
Second order (secondary) triangulation provides points at greater density than first order
triangulation. This network is adjusted to fit its parent primary triangle or its surrounding primary
control. Less refinement is needed as the network is surrounded by the primary control.
Third order (tertiary ) triangulation is used to establish control for lo cal developments and
improvements , topographic and hydro graphic surveys or other such projects for which they
provide sufficient accuracy.

1.4 STANDARD CLASSIFICATION

2nd order 3rd order

ST
1 ORDER
Class I Class II Class I Class II
Discrepancy b/n
measured and 1part 100,000 1 part in 1 part in 1 part in 1 part in
computed length of 50,000 20,000 10,000 5,000
baseline
Triangle angular error
1” 1.2 ” 2” 3” 5”
Recommended uses Furnishe s Area control Area control General control surveys
control for strengthens which referred to national
primary the national contributes to network and local
national net network but control surveys.
work supple me ntal
metropolitan to the national
area surveys, net work
scientific
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1.5 Triangulation Figures

Although triangles are basic figures in triangulation networks, they are not allowed to exist alone
because they do not provide sufficient checks on measurements and subsequent computations.
Triangles are combined to form other geometrical entities.
There are several different triangulation systems which can be used for particular survey. In each
case a set of triangles which adjoin or overlap each other are used. Four types of systems which
are used in triangulation are:

A. Chain of single triangles

There is only one route to compute the unknown side. Because of this it doesn’
t provide the most
accurate result. This type of triangulation systems is employed in rather long and narrow surveys of
low precision. The means of check in this system is by comparing the computed length of check
base with the measured. E.g. fig. 1.2: a

B. Chain of Quadrilaterals formed with overlapping triangle s

The most common triangulation system best adopted to rather long and narrow surveys where the
high degree of precision is required.
The sides can be computed with different route as well as different triangles and angles offering
excellent checks on the computation. E.g. fig. 1.2: b

C. A chain of central point figure s

This type of triangulation system is used when horizontal control is to be extended over a rather
wide area involving number of points. It is very strong and quite easy to arrange.

D. Central Point figure with extra diagonal

The central point figure is further strengthened by using diagonal as shown. The most common
figure used is the braced quadrilateral (fig. 1.2: b) below. It is best suited to long narrow systems.
Brace polygons (fig. 1.2: c) can also be used in the case of wide systems.

a b c

Fig. 1. 2: triangulation figures (a) chain of triangles; (b) chain of quadrilaterals;

(c) Chain of polygons.
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1.6 Triangulation procedure

1. Reconnaissance, sele ct the location of stations;
2. Evaluation of the strength of figure;
3. Erection of signals, and in some cases, towers for elevating the signals and / or instruments
4. observation of directions or angle s;
5. measurement of base lines;
6. Astronomic observation at one or more locations;
7. computations including reduction to sea level, calculation of the lengths of all sides and
coordinates for all stations

1.7 Reconnaissance
The success of any triangulation depends on the reconnaissance, which is the most difficult and
exacting task of the extensive survey.
Reconnaissance consists of selection of sites for stations, determination of shape and size of the
resulting triangles, the number of stations to be occupied, the number of angles and directions to
be measured, inter visibility, and accessibility of stations, usefulness of stations in later works, the
cost of the necessary signals and / or towers, and the convenience of base line measurements. In
order to acquire the information, available maps, survey information and aerial photographs of the
area are used. Field inspection and rough measurements may also be carried out to suppleme nt the
study, sele ct favourable location for stations and checks suitability.
Heavily wooded country is the most difficult in which to carry triangulation. A valley of proper
width, with peaks on either side, is the most favourable. Stations are located on higher points,
provided that their locations will give the best shaped triangles. The ideal condition is one in which
no or lo w towers are used and no clearing is required. A most important and difficult part is to
determine the height of towers necessary to make the sight between any two of the stations clear
of obstruction.
A mistake on the part of the person may lead to a delay of the work, especially in the first and
second order triangulation work where observation is done after dark.

1.7.1 Strength of Figures

The term refers to the effect of the proportions of a triangle on the accuracy with which the
lengths of the sides can be computed. When small errors in angle measurement affect the
computed distances very little, the figure is said to be strong.
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In triangulation the lengths of triangle sides are computed with the low of sines. When triangles are
used that contain small angle s, the best results may not be obtained because of the fact that the
rate of change of the sines of angle s near 00 or 1800 is quite large compared to the rate of change
for angles near 900. Thus angles near 900 are the optimum ones to use, with those from 300 to 1500
being acceptable .
It is not correct to say that small angle s should always be avoided- rather, they should not be used
where they will weaken the system. For instance, in calcula ting the length of a given side of a
triangle there are two angle s that are used: the angle opposite the known side and the angle
opposite the side whose length is to be determined.

B
c

a A
Fig. 1. 3: Example of Strengt hof figure
b
C
In figure above, the length b is assumed to be known and it is desired to determine the length c.
With the sine law only the angles B and C are used, and as a result the angle A has no direct effect
on the calcula tions and thus can be quite small without affecting the strength of the figure.
Therefore, the strongest chain of triangle is the one whose distance angles are near 90 0.There is a
method of testing by which the strength of figure is measured. The measure of the strength of
figure with respect to length is evaluated quantitatively in terms of a factor R base d on the

probability.
R = { (D - C) / D } [ Σ{ δA2 + δAδB + δB2} ]
where, C= no of conditions to be satisfied

= (n` - S` + 1) + (n –2S + 3)

n = total number of lines in the figure including baseline

n` = no of lines observed in both directions including base line if observed.

S = no of total stations

S’
= no of occupied stations

D = no of directions observed (fore and /or backward excluding the base line)

δAδB = respective logarithmic difference of sines expressed in units of the sixth

decimal place corresponding to a change of 1in the distance angle A and B in the triangle.
The distance angles are the angles in each triangle opposite to known side and the required sides.
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Example
Compute the strength of the fig. given below:

D
h a = 40
C g b = 60
a
b c = 40
d = 40
e = 40
f f = 50
c
g = 50
d e
A B
Fig. 1. 4: Braced quadrilateral with base line AB to compute CD

Compute the length of side CD.

Solution
For the given figure the length of CD can be obtained in four different ways.

Case triangle known comp. dist. Angle Σ{ δA2 + δAδB + δB2} R

I ACB AB AC 60 40 11
ACD AC CD 40 40 19
0.6*30=18
II ABD AB AD 90 50 3
ACD AD CD 100 40 6
0.6*9=5.4
III ABC AB CB 80 60 2
CBD CB CD 90 50 3
0.6*5=3
IV ABD AB BD 50 40 14
CBD BD CD 50 40 14
0.6*28=16.8

Therefore the length of side CD is best computed if the 3rd case is chose n. Accordingly:
CB = AB sin 80 / sin 60
CD = CB sin90/sin 50 = [ AB(sin 80)( sin90)] / [(sin 60)( sin 50)]
Use R1= 3 to compute the sides
R2= 5.4 to check the computed.
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1.8 Triangulation Adjustment

Before the length computation begin, it is necessary to make triangulation adjustments.

1.8.1 Adjustment of Chain of Single Triangles

When chains of single triangles are used, it is nece ssary to make the following adjustments.
A. Station adjustments : the sum of the angles around each point should exactly be 3600.
B. Figure adjustments : the sum of the angles in each triangle should exactly be 1800.
For the angles about a point the difference between the sum of measured angles and 3600 is
bala nced equally between the numbers of angle s.
In the same fashion the difference between the sum of the measured angles in each triangle and
180 is balanced equally between the angles.

Example
1. For the triangles shown, the measured angles are given. Make station and figure adjustment to the
angles.

Measured angles
1. 41 16 10
2. 53 33 20
3
3. 265 07 45
9 10 4. 91 16 10
5. 268 43 30
6. 35 07 00
5 4 7. 78 42 30
7 8. 246 11 00
B
Fig. 1. 5: Stat ion & Figure adjustment of 9. 60 01 05
chain of single t riangle C 10. 249 59 15

Solution
A. Station adjustme nt

Station angle measured adjuste d

1 41 16 10 41 16 05
A 2 53 36 20 53 36 15
3 265 07 45 265 07 40
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Station angle measured adjuste d

å 360 00 15 360 00 00
4 91 16 10 91 16 20
B 5 268 43 30 268 43 40
å 359 59 40 360 00 00
6 35 07 00 35 06 50
C 7 78 42 30 78 42 20
8 246 1100 246 10 50
å 360 00 30 360 00 00
9 60 0105 60 00 55
D 10 299 59 15 299 59 05
å 360 00 20 360 00 00

B. Figure Adjustment

Triangle angle Angle value after Angle value after

station adjustment figure adjustme nt
2 53 36 15 53 36 27
ABC 4 9116 20 9116 32
6 35 06 50 35 07 01
å 179 59 25 180 00 00
1 4116 05 4116 18
ACD 7 78 42 20 78 42 34
9 60 00 55 60 0108
å 179 59 20 180 00 00

N.B: Give the larger correcting factor, to large measured angle.

Check the station
A= 1+ 2 + 3 = 3600 00’ ’
25’
Adjust angle 3 =2650 07’ ’
40’–000 00’ ’
25’= 2650 07’ ’
15’

1.8.2 Adjustment of a quadrilateral

When a chain of quadrilaterals are used, there are two conditions which must be satisfied.

A. Geometric condition: the sum of the interior angles must equal to (n-
1)*1800; where n is the sum number of sides of the figure.
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B. Trigonometric condition: The sine of each angle must be proportio nal to the
opposite side of that triangle.

Consider the diagram below;

B
A a b
h c
Fig. 1. 6: Adjustment of Quadrilateral

d
g
e
Base line C
D

Let AD be the base line and angles a to h be measured angles.

A. Adjustme nt of quadrilateral by approximate method
a) Geometric condition
1. the sum of interior angles of a triangle should be 1800.
For ABC; a + b + c + d = 180
For BCD; c + d + e + f =180
For ABD; a + b + h + g =180
For ACD ; h + g + f + e = 180
2. The sum of interior angles of quadrilateral should be 3600.
a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = 360
3. The sum of opposite angles ( at the intersection of the diagonal) should be equal.
a + b =e + f
c+ d = g + h
b) Trigonometric condition

This geometric condition to be satisfied for quadrilateral adjustment

Steps in the adjustment of quadrilaterals
1. Correct each of the eight angle s so that their sum will be exactly 360.
2. Adjust the vertically opposite angles so that their sum should be equal.
3. Record the log sines for every alternate angles
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4. For each angle record the tabular logarithmic sine difference for 1”opposite each logarithm.
5. Find the average required change (α ) in log sines by dividing the differences between the
sums by eight.
6. Find the average difference (b) for 1”
.
7. The ratio of (α/b) gives the number of seconds or arc to be applied as a correction. This
correction is added to each of the four angles whose sum of log sines is the smaller and
subtracted from each of the other four angle s whose sum of lo g sines is the larger, and thus
the correct value of angles are obtained.

Example
1.Make the nece ssary adjustment for the following quadrilaterals.

B Measured angle
A a b
a = 38 44 06
h c
b = 23 44 38
c = 42 19 09
d = 44 52 01
e = 69 04 21
f = 39 37 48
d
g g = 26 25 51
e h = 75 12 14
C
å = 360 00 08
D Fig. 1. 7: Example for Adjustment of Quadrilateral

Solution
Step 1. Diff. = 08”
; correction = 08”
/ 8 = 1”

Step 2. b + c = 66 0 03’ 45’’

0
F + g = 66 03’ 37’’
= 08” /4 = 02”(angle f and g should be increased by 2”and angle b and
c are decreased by 2”)
0
a + h = 113 56’ 18’’
d + e = 1130 56’20’ ’
02” /4 = 0.5”( add 0.5”to a and h and subtract from d and e

step 3. compute the log sines for every alternative angles.

Log sin a = -0.203621777 lo g sin b = -0.395087669
Log sin c =-0.17182419 Log sind = -0.15152906
Log sin e = -02963892 log sin f = -0.195294325
Log sin g = -0.3 5152145 log sin h = -0.014645342
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Step 4. Compute the logarithmic sine difference for 1”

Log sin (a + 1”) - Log sin a = 2.6*10-6
) - Log sin c = 2.3*10-6
Log sin (c + 1”
Log sin (e + 1” )- Log sin e =0.9*10- 6
Log sin (g + 1”) - Log sin g = 4.3*10 -6
Log sin (b + 1” ) - Log sin b = 4.8*10-6
.etc
step 5
7.2434434 –7.2433935 = 49.9 * 10 -6
therefore α= (49.9 * 10-6 )/ 8 = 6.24 * 10-6

step 6
b = 20.2 * 10-6 / 8 = 2.53 * 10-6
step 7
b = 6.24/2.53 = 2.47”

Correction: add 2.47”to all angles whose sines of log sine is smaller ( i.e for angles a, c, e and g ) &
vice-versa( subtract 2.47”from b, d, f, and h )
Note : If the corrections are properly applied,the sum of the logsines of the corrected angles will
agree with in 1 or 2 in the last 7th decimal place .

1.9 Computation of lengths

Two sides of each triangle are computed by using the law of sines, since one side of the triangle is
always known and the three angles
a = 63017'28.12'' C
b = 84018'20.37'' f have been measured and adjusted.
D e
c = 17052'26.69'' g In computing the sides of the
d = 30041'16.98'' h triangles in a quadrilateral, such as
e = 47007'55.96''
that in fig. below, the solutions of
f = 660 35'55.30''
g = 35034'51.76'' a d two triangles is sufficient to
h= 14031'4 4.82'' b c compute the positions of the
A B forward triangulation stations. The
Fig. 1. be
8: Length Computat ion
two triangles chose n must the strongest route through the quadrilateral.
In the figure above (Fig. 1. 8), the side AB is the known or measured line of the quadrilateral, and
the strongest route is obtained by considering triangle ABC and triangle DAC in that order. To
check the accuracy of the fieldwork or the consistency of the figure adjustment, the two triangles
ABCand triangle BDC can be computed in that order. This computation gives a check on the length
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of the side CD, which is the forward side of the quadrilateral. However, only the result for the
strongest route will be used in the further computations.
If the coordinates of stations A and B are known, the length of line BA computed by:

If EA=1,442,416.25 NA= 622,516.21 &

EB=1,445,317.844 NB=621,754.14

DAB= 3000.000m
With the side AB known, the sides AC and CB are computed by using the law of sines.

Also,

The line CA = AC is then used as the start ing side of triangle DCA.

Computation of lengths in triangles

Sides Stations Angles Adjusted angles Distances
Triangle ABC
AB 3000.000
0
C e 47 07'55.96'' 0.73292548
B c+ d 48033'43.67'' 0.74967381
A b 84018'20.37'' 0.99506538
180000'00.00''
AC 3068.554
CB 4072.987

Triangle CAD
CA 3068.554
0
D h+g 50 06'36.58'' 0.76727890
C f 66035'55.30'' 0.91774558
A a 63017'28.12''
AD 3670.311
CD 3572.554
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1.10 Coordinate calculations

A. Computation of Azimuths

If the coordinates of stations A and B are known, the azimuth from north of the line AB is
determined by:

tan AAB =

AAB = tan-1

AAB = 104 042'56.6''

Azimuth of AB= 104042'56.60''
-b = -840 18'20.37''
Azimuth AC = 20024'36.23''
-a = -63017'28.12''
Azimuth AD = 317007'08.11''
azimuth CB = -153016'40.2''
( f + e) = 113043'51.2''
Azimuth of BA = 284042'56.60''
+(d + c) = + 48033'43.67''
azimuth of BC = 333016'40.27''
azimuth of CA = 200024'36.2 3''
+ angle f = + 66035'55.3''
Azimuth of CD = 267000'31.53''
(check)

B. Position Computation

The coordinates of all the stations throughout the triangulation system are computed by using the
strongest route of triangles in the network. When a station is reached whose coordinates are fixed,
the positions of the intermediate stations can then be adjusted. If the triangulation system is of
great extent and high precision, this adjustment should be made by application of the least-squares
principle. If the system is moderate in extent, an application of the compass rule will give highly
satisfactory results. In this case a traverse extending from one fixed point to another fixed point
and including all the intermediate triangulation stations is selected in as direct a line as possible. This
traverse is then adjusted by the compass rule.
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2. TRILATERATION
A trilateration net work, like triangulation, may consist of a series of single triangle s, braced
quadrilaterals and centre point polygons or combinations of these but, unlike triangulation, the
observed quantities are the distances not the angles.
The methods used in trilateration computations are very similar to those used in triangulation and
proceed as follo ws.
1. Using the measured or calculated baseline length and all the measured lengths, the angles in
the network are calculated using the cosine rule. This is carried out by breaking down all the
figures into their constituent triangles and proceeding as follows. In triangle ABC of figure
below, the angles are given by:

Cos α=

Cos β=
β
B γ
Cos γ=
C

2. These computed angles are adjusted by the method discussed in adjusting triangulation
systems.
3. The strength of the figure of the system is evaluated.
4. Starting at the baseline, all the lengths of the sides in the network are computed using the
adjusted angles. In addition the bearings of all the triangle sides throughout the network are
computed, again using the adjusted angles.
5. The computed bearings and distances obtained in (4) are used to calculate coordinates
throughout the network.
A disadvantage of trilateration is that, compared to triangulation, the number of geometric
conditions for adjustment is less than that for equivalent figures.
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3. CONCEPTS OF INTERSECTION AND RESECTION

Two techniques commonly employed in extending horizontal control surveys and in setting out are
intersection and resection.

3.1 INTERSECTION
The Coordinate of new station or point can be determined by a combination of measurements
from other points of fixed (known) position. In effect the position of the new points is established at
the known points toward the new station these particular variations of the method include:
i. Direction-Direction intersection
ii. Direction-Distance intersection
iii. Distance-Distance intersection

i. Direction-Direction interse ction

In this type of intersection it is nece ssary to know the azimuth of the lines from the two fixed “if
the coordinates were known”
. The angles at
3(x3,y3) station 1 and station 2 then must be

Azimuth measured in the field. Here no distance

Azimuth
measurements are required.

1(x1,y1) 2(x2,y2)
Fig. 1. 10:Direction-direction Intersection
ii. Direction-Dist ance intersection
In this type of intersection it is nece ssary to know the distance from the one fixed points 1and the
azimuth from the other fixed points 2 to
3(x3,y3)
new point 3. Here distance and angle
Distance Azimuth m easurements are required.

ection 1(x1,y1) 2(x2,y2)

iii. Distance-Distance intersection

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In this type of intersection it is necessary to know the distance from the two fixed points 1
and 2 to new point 3. Here no angle
3(x3,y3)
m easurements are required.
Distance Distance

1(x
Fig. ,y1)Dist ance-distance Intersection
1. 112: 2(x2,y2)
Example:
With reference to Fig. 1. 10 suppose that the coordinate of station 1is (350, 450) and coordinate of s
tation 2 is (775, 500). The interior angles at station 1 and 2 are measured to be 50o 30’and 35045’ ,
respectively. Determine the coordinate of station 3.
Solution
1. First the azimuth and distance of line 1-2 can be determined
Δx 12
Az12 =tan-1 ( ) (
Ax 12
=tan-1
775-350
500-450 )= 83° 27 24.5
' ''

Δx12
HB12=√ (ΔX12 )2+ (ΔY 12 )2 =√(175-350)2+ (500-450)2=421 93 A z12 =tan-1 ( )Ax12

2. Next we can use the interior angles at 1, and 2, and the known azimuth of 1-2 to determine
the azimuth of 1-3 and 2-3.

3. Using the law of sine solve the distance 1-3 and 2-3:

but angle 3=180-(1+2)

4. Calculate the departure and latitude ( X, Y) for 1-3 and 2-3

5. Compute the coordinate of station 3

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3.2 RESECTION
The horizontal position of a new point can also be determined by measuring angles from new point
to three points of known coordinates. This method is called resection.
Depending up on the position of control points A, B and C, P can lie either outside triangle ABC or
inside. B
A B C
B
P A C
A

P
P

Fig. 1. 13: Resection--shows the three possibilities of the location of the points “P”, the coordinate of which is going to
be computed.
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4. ADJUSTMENT OF SURVEYOBSERVATION

4.1 Adjustments
When the absolute size of an error is known, and when weights have been assigned to
measurements having varying reliabilities, corrections to the field data will be made in such a way
that the error is eliminated by applying corrections that reflect the various weightings. It’
s obvious
that measurements having large weights will be corrected less than measurements having small
weights. The more certain the measurement, is the larger the weight. It follo ws that correction
factors should be in inverse ratio to the corresponding weights.
Example:
The angles in a triangle were determined, with A being measured three times, B being measured
two times, and C being measured once. It is noticed that the correction factor is simply the inverse
of the weight, and that the actual corrections for each angle is simply the ratio of the correction
factor to the total correction factor, all multiplied by the total correction.
Correction Adjusted
Angle Me an Value We ight(SE) Corrections
factor(SE)2 Angle
A 45007’ 32’’ 3 1/ 3=0.33 ’
0.33/ 1.83*20’ ’
=+4’ 450 07’ ’
3 6’
B 71051’ ’
06’ 2 ½=0.50 ’
0.50/ 1.83*20’ ’
=+ 5’ 71051’ ’
11’
C 63001’ ’
02’ 1 1/ 1=1.00 ’
1/1.8 3*20’ ’
=+11’ 630 01’ ’
13’
1790 59’ ’
40’ ∑ =1.83 ∑=20 180000’ ’
00’
Adjusted
Error = Me asured Value - Given Value
=1790 59’ ’
40’-1800 00’ ’
00’ ’
=-20’
Exercise
Consider the same angles, exce pt in this case the weights will be related to standard error (SE)
characteristics of three different theodolites.

Standard error of the m ean,

It is seen that the error varies inversely with the square root of the num ber of m easurements; it is

also true that the num ber of measurem ents varies inversely with the SE2m, .

4.2 Weight ed Observat ions

 Page 19of 19
Surv ey ing I I [CENG 1082],
Hand Out- Unit 3; Prepared B y: Y onas A sefa
Addis Ababa Science and T echnology Univ ersity, 2015

If the reliability of different sets of m easurements varies one to the other, then equal considerations
cannot be given to those sets. Som e method (weighting)m ust be used to arrive at a best value. For
example, measurem ents may be m ade under varying considerations using varying levels of skills
and repeated a varying number of times.

Weight by Number of Repetitions

The simplest concept of weighted values can be illustrated by the following exam ple where the
weighted mean is calculated. A distance was measured six times, the values obtained were:
6.012, 6.011, 6.012, 6.012, 6.011, 6.013
The value of 6.012 was observed three times; 6.011two tim es, and 6.013 one tim e.
Distance, x Weight, w X*w
6.012 3 18.056
6.011 2 12.022
6.013 1 6.013
∑w=6 ∑x*w=36.071

That is
Note: If the distance had been measured six times and six different results had occurred, each
measurement would be received a weight of one, and the computation would be the same as for
the arithmetic mean.