Theories and Models of Instructional Methodologies and Design

Republic of the Philippines
DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

MID-LA UNION CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF GRADUATE STUDIES
City of San Fernando 2500, La Union
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Designing change!------------------
NAME: CRISTETA L. RAMOLETE

SUBJECT: Philo 306
TOPIC: Theories and Models of Instructional Methodologies and Design
DATE: March 8, 2023
PROFESSOR: DR. MA. TERASA ACANTILADO
Theories and Models of

Instructional Methodologies
and Design
 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Many countries throughout the world are looking for better ways to educate
their people while restructuring their education and training systems in order to
compete in an increasingly competitive global economy. One strategy to improve the
quality of educational opportunities is to create effective instructional materials.
Instructional design is both a science and an art: a science since it is based on
learning theories, which draw their ideas from psychology, sociology, philosophy,
and education; and an art because producing instructional materials is a highly
creative process. As a result, it is logical that no two designers will create learning
materials in exactly the same way. Yet, the common concern of instructional
designers is the facilitation of successful learning experiences that allow learners to
exhibit their newly acquired information, abilities, and attitudes.
The notion of instructional design has been defined in a variety of ways, but in
essence, it entails solving instructional challenges by carefully analyzing learning
conditions and constructing a satisfactory learning experience based on this
analysis. Therefore, instructional design refers to the systematic process of
translating principles of learning and instruction into plans or specifications for
instructional materials or activities. These designs are built on previously effective
concepts, notably learning theories. Instructional designers create learning materials
that are both functional and appealing to product consumers. Furthermore,
instructional designers use established learning theories and principles as problem-
solving procedures (models) to guide them in making decisions about their
designs(Smith and Ragan, 1999).
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It is clear that designing and

developing instructional materials is a
thorough and
complex process aimed at solving
particular instructional and learning
problems.
Instructional designers address three
fundamental concerns, namely:
• Goals: What are the goals of the
instruction? (Where are we going?)
• Instructional strategy: What is the
instructional strategy and the
instructional
medium? (How will we get there?)
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• Evaluation: How will we evaluate

and revise the instructional materials
for future
improvement? (How will we know
when we have arrived?) (Smith and
Ragan, 1999)
It is clear that designing and
developing instructional materials is a
thorough and
complex process aimed at solving
particular instructional and learning
problems.
Instructional designers address three
fundamental concerns, namely:
• Goals: What are the goals of the
instruction? (Where are we going?)
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• Instructional strategy: What is the

instructional strategy and the
instructional
medium? (How will we get there?)
• Evaluation: How will we evaluate
and revise the instructional materials
for future
improvement? (How will we know
when we have arrived?) (Smith and
Ragan, 1999)
It is clear that designing and developing instructional materials is a thorough
and complex process aimed at solving particular instructional and learning problems.
Instructional designers address three fundamental concerns, namely:
 Goals: What are the goals of the instruction? (Where are we going?)
 Instructional strategy: What is the instructional strategy and the
instructional medium? (How will we get there?)
 Evaluation: How will we evaluate and revise the instructional materials for
future improvement? (How will we know when we have arrived?) (Smith
and Ragan, 1999)
ROLES OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

The different approaches to instructional design are nowhere more
obvious than in the ever-growing list of models. Gropper (1977) has provided an
analysis of instructional design models used in higher education environments.
Extending Gropper’s list, Andrews and Goodson (1980) analyzed 40 models and
concluded that instructional design models can serve the following purposes:
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• Improving learning and instruction by following a systematic approach

• Improving management of instructional design and development
procedures by
• monitoring and controlling the functions of the systematic approach
• Improving evaluation processes (including learner performance)
• Testing or building learning or instructional theory by means of theory-
based design within a systematic instructional model
THEORIES AND MODELS

 DICK AND CAREY MODEL
The Dick and Carey model is comprised of nine stages incorporating
elements from previous design models as well as elements from behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism. This model provides the designer with a process
that incorporates flexibility and allows the designer to make appropriate
adaptations for their particular situation.
INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS
Instructional goals can be established in a variety of ways; however, the essential is to
assess whether education is the only solution or if there are other elements at play. The
designer's task is to sift through a large amount of data to find the source of the
problem. Employees in the auto industry, for example, may not be fulfilling company-set
criteria due to poor training, but it could also be due to poorly defined processes that
take too long to execute. Students may fall behind on benchmarks in education owing to
bad teaching, but it is also possible that teachers are forced to cover too many topics,
and pupils are unable to retain all of this material. Instructional designers conduct a
performance analysis and needs assessment to assist in gathering this information.
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INSTRUCTIONAL ANALYSIS
It's critical to outline the precise steps students must take to accomplish their goals after
they have been set. It often helps to use a flowchart in an instructional analysis to map
out each skill into its smallest step as well as to identify any additional steps or skills,
frequently referred to as subordinate skills, that must be mastered before mastering the
main skill.
ENTRY BEHAVIORS AND CHARACTERISTICS

To create the best learning environment, it is also crucial to understand the learner's
behaviors and traits. This involves identifying the learner's entry skills, which are things
they already know or are able to do. However, it's also crucial to learn about their
perspectives on learning, what motivates them to learn, their educational backgrounds,
their levels of ability, and their individual traits like age or technological experience.
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
The learner's abilities after receiving instruction are referred to as performance
objectives. A condition, a behavior, and a criterion should always be included in
performance objectives, although there are exceptions to this rule. To define
measurable behaviors in their objectives, many designers use Bloom's Taxonomy or
Mager's ABCD model. In the end, goals should be precise and quantifiable.
CRITERION REFENCE TEST ITEMS

The performance objectives are assessed using test items that are referenced by
criteria. These questions can be used on tests like pre- and post-tests as well as
performance-based measures like performance observations using rubrics or attitude
changes.
INSTRUCTIONAL SRATEGY
An instructional strategy can be mapped out by the designer once the assessment has
been defined. The designer must go over the material and arrange it in a purposeful
lesson. They must also choose the kinds of activities and learning experiences they
want the learner to partake in. Gagné's Nine Events of Instruction is one strategy for
organizing a learning experience, as it was earlier in this chapter.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Materials that are appropriate are developed after the instructional framework has been
developed. Utilizing already published or created print or media materials is one option.
Gathering suggestions and making changes should be an iterative process. Some
designers will give graphic or multimedia designers rough draft outlines for
development.
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FORMATIVE EVALUATION
As was already mentioned, formative evaluation is a tool used by instructional designers
to assess the efficacy of their strategies and materials. In order to review the instruction
and spot any flaws or gaps, the designer will consult with both individuals and groups.
Based on this feedback, the materials are revised to ensure that the instruction is
suitable and understandable for the students.
SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
The instruction is then field-tested and reviewed by experts. The goal is to guarantee
that the instruction focuses on the competencies identified in the instructional analysis
and yields the desired outcomes in the field.
 GAGNE MODEL
LEARNING CONDITIONS
 Problem-Solving
 Rule Learning
 Concept Learning
 Discrimination Learning
 Verbal Association
 Chaining
 Stimulus
 Signal Learning
LEARNING OUTCOME
Gagné posited that not all learning is equal and each distinct learning domain should
be presented and assessed differently. Therefore, as an instructional designer one
of the first tasks is to determine which learning domain applies to the content. The
theoretical basis behind the Conditions of Learning is that learning outcomes can be
broken down into five different domains: verbal information, cognitive strategies,
motor skills, attitudes, and intellectual skills.
Verbal information includes basic labels and facts (e.g. names of people, places,
objects, or events) as well as bodies of knowledge (e.g. paraphrasing of ideas or
rules and regulations). Cognitive strategies are internal processes where the learner
can control his/her own way of thinking such as creating mental models or self-
evaluating study skills. Motor skills require bodily movement such as throwing a ball,
tying a shoelace, or using a saw. Attitude is a state that affects a learner’s action
towards an event, person, or object. For example, appreciating a selection of music
or writing a letter to the editor. Intellectual skills have their own hierarchical structure
within the Gagné taxonomy and are broken down into discrimination, concrete
concepts, rule using, and problem solving. Discrimination is when the learner can
identify differences between inputs or members of a particular class and respond
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appropriately to each. For example, distinguishing when to use a Phillips-head or a

flat-head screwdriver. Concrete concepts are the opposite of discrimination because
they entail responding the same way to all members of a class or events. An
example would be classifying music as pop, country, or classical. Rule using is
applying a rule to a given situation or condition. A learner will need to relate two or
more simpler concepts, as a rule states the relationship among concepts. In many
cases, it is helpful to think of these as “if-then” statements. For example, “if the tire is
flat, then I either need to put air in the tire or change the flat tire.” Finally, problem
solving is combining lower-level rules and applying them to previously
unencountered situations. This could include generating new rules through trial and
error until a problem is solved.
GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Event one: Gain attention. Before learning can happen, the learners
must be engaged. To gain the learners’ attention, any number of strategies can
be employed. It could be as simple as turning the lights on and off, the teacher
counting down, or the teacher clapping three times. Other options could include a
discussion prompt, showing a video, or discussing current events.
Event two: Inform learners of objective. Once learners are engaged, they are
informed of the objective of the instruction, which gives learners a road map to the
instruction. It allows them to actively navigate the instruction and know where they are
supposed to end up. This could be written on a whiteboard in front of the class,
highlighted on materials, spoken verbally, or posted clearly in an online context.
Event three: Stimulate recall of prior learning. Stimulating recall of prior

learning allows learners to build upon previous content covered or skills acquired. This
can be done by referring to previous instruction, using polls to determine previous
content understanding (and then discussing the results), or by using a discussion on
previous topics as a segue between previous content and new content.
Event four: Present the stimulus material. Presenting the stimulus material is
simply where the instructor presents new content. According to Gagné, this presentation
should vary depending on the domain of learning corresponding to the new content.
Event five: Provide learner guidance. Providing learner guidance entails giving
learners the scaffolding and tools needed to be successful in the learning context.
Instructors can provide detailed rubrics or give clear instruction on expectations for the
learning context and the timeline for completion.
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Event six: Elicit performance. Eliciting performance allows learners to apply

the knowledge or skills learned before being formally assessed. It allows learners to
practice without penalty and receive further instruction, remediation, or clarification
needed to be successful.
Event seven: Provide feedback. Hand in hand with eliciting performance in a

practice setting, the instructor provides feedback to further assist learners’ content or
skill mastery.
Event eight: Assess performance. Following the opportunity to practice the

new knowledge or skill (events five, six, and seven), learner performance is assessed. It
is imperative that the performance be assessed in a manner consistent with its domain
of learning. For example, verbal knowledge can be assessed using traditional fact tests
or with rote memorization, but motor skills must be assessed by having the learner
demonstrate the skill.
Event nine: Enhance retention and transfer. Enhancing retention and transfer
gives the learner the opportunity to apply the skill or knowledge to a previously
unencountered situation or to personal contexts. For example, using class discussion,
designing projects, or by writing essays.
 ADDIE MODEL
The ADDIE model was originally invented by Florida State University in 1975. Its
purpose was to form an instructional systems development program for military training.
Eventually, the model transformed and became commonly used for all types of training.
The ADDIE model is a process used by training developers and instructional designers
to plan and create effective learning experiences. ADDIE is an acronym, meaning each
letter stands for a different phase for creating an effective eLearning course. ADDIE
stands for:
1. Analysis
2. Design
3. Development
4. Implementation
5. Evaluation
The model is meant to be completed in sequential order, from Analysis to
Evaluation. However, ADDIE is designed to be a flexible, continuous process of
improvements and iterations.
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The ADDIE model states you should first analyze the current situation. Basically,
get a clear picture of where everything is currently to understand the gaps you need
to fill. A quality analysis helps identify learning goals and objectives. It also helps
gather information about what your audience already knows and what they still need
to learn. During this stage is when you’ll conduct an in-depth training needs
assessment to help you identify the gaps. In the Design phase, we view all the
information from the Analysis phase and make informed decisions about creating the
learning program. Be aware – this phase is often time-intensive and requires
attention to detail. You’ve got your analysis. You’ve got your design. Now it’s time to
start building. The Development phase is where you actually begin creating
or developing. In the previous Design phase, the content ideas should have already
been decided. Your job in the Development phase is to bring those content ideas to
life. Anything that has to do with creating the actual end-product for your learners.
The final phase in the ADDIE Model is evaluation. The Evaluation phase is all
about gathering important information to see if the course needs to be revised and
improved. One unique feature of the ADDIE model is that it can be used as a
continuous cycle. For example – you gather feedback in the final Evaluation phase.
Then plop it right back into the beginning Analysis phase, which starts an entirely
new iteration of your end-product.
 5 E’s MODEL
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5 E’s is an instructional model based on the constructivist approach to learning,

which says that learners build or construct new ideas on top of their old ideas. The 5
E’s can be used with students of all ages, including adults.
Each of the 5 E describes a phase of learning and each phase begins with the
letter “E”: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate and Evaluate. The 5 E’s allows
students and teachers to experience common activities, to use and build on prior
knowledge and experience, to construct meaning and to continually assess their
understanding of a concept.
The Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS), a team whose Principal
Investigator is Roger Bybee developed an instructional model for constructivism
called the 5Es.
 Engage: Activity which will focus student’s attention, stimulate their thinking,
and access prior knowledge.
o The teacher creates interest and generates curiosity.
o The students will ask questions such as, Why did this happen? What
do I already know about this? What have I found out about this?
Shows interest in the topic. Raises questions. Elicits responses that
uncover what the students know or think about the concept/topic.
 Explore: Activity which gives students time to think and investigate/test/make

decisions/problem solve, and collect information.
o The teacher encourages the students to work together without direct
instruction from the teacher. Observes and listens to the students as
they interact. Asks probing questions to redirect the students’
investigations when necessary. Provides time for students to puzzle
through problems.
o The student thinks freely but within the limits of the activity. Tests
predictions and hypotheses. Forms new predictions and hypotheses.
Tries alternatives and discusses them with others. Records
observations and ideas. Suspends judgement.
 Explain: Activity which allows students to analyze their exploration. Student’s

understanding is clarified and modified through a reflective activity.
o The teacher encourages the students to explain concepts and
definitions in their own words. Asks for justification (evidence) and
clarification from students. Formally provides definitions, explanations,
and new labels. Uses students’ previous experiences as basis for
explaining concepts.
o The students explains possible solutions or answers to others. Listens
officially to others’ explanations. Questions others’ explanations.
Listens to and tries to comprehend explanations the teacher offers.
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Refers to previous activities. Uses recorded observations in

explanations.
 Elaborate: Activity which expands and solidifies student thinking and/or

applies it to a real-world situation.
o The teacher expects the students to use formal labels, definitions, and
explanations provided previously. Encourages the students to apply or
extend the concepts and skills in new situations. Reminds the
students of alternative explanations. Refers the students to existing
data and evidence and asks, What do you already know? Why do
you think ? Strategies from Explore apply here also.
o The student applies new labels, definitions, explanations, and skills in
new, but similar situations. Uses previous information to ask
questions, propose solutions, make decisions, and design
experiments. Draws reasonable conclusions from evidence. Records
observations and explanations. Checks for understandings among
peers.
 Evaluate: Activity which allows the teacher to assess student performance

and/or understandings of concepts, skills, processes, and applications.
o The teacher observes the students as they apply new concepts
and skills. Assesses students’ knowledge and/or skills. Looks for
evidence that the students have changed their thinking or
behaviors. Allows students to assess their own learning and
group-process skills. Asks open-ended questions, such as: Why
do you think. . .? What evidence do you have? What do you
know about x? How would you explain x?
o The student answers open-ended questions by using
observations, evidence, and previously accepted explanations.
Demonstrates an understanding or knowledge of the concept or
skill. Evaluates his or her own progress and knowledge. Asks
related questions that would encourage future investigations.
 7 Es MODEL
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The 7E instructional model is a common learning cycle used by science

teachers. Earlier known the the 5E model, the 7E model is an extension of its
predecessor that has been expanded to ensure teachers don't leave out any essential
instructional components. The 7E model is also often used as a conceptual change
model. Within its levels teachers can work from eliciting dissatisfaction at the beginning
to having students extend their new understanding to ensure the misunderstanding has
been usurped. As you learn about the 7E model think of how the lesson we watched on
heat fits into the model as well as the lesson you developed in the previous unit. It is
also helpful to think of units you currently use in class and how the 7E model fits into
their instruction.
Elicit
In most cases you will start with the “Elicit”. Here you can find out what the students
know by eliciting responses from them. This can be done in a variety of ways, such as
“Quick Quizes, MCQs, Post-it notes, mini whiteboards, KWL, traffic lights etc. This is
also a good opportunity to deal with students misunderstandings.
Engage
The next stage is the “Engage” stage. This can come before or after the elicit stage. In
this stage you want to engage interest and curiosity, raise “The BIG questions” and
provide the “HOOK” for why the students want to learn.
Explore
During the “Explore” stage, pupils should be given opportunities to work together,
independent of you,their teacher to explore. As the teacher, you should set up the task,
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but then become the facilitator, helping students by asking questions and observing. (In
Scientific enquiry using Piagets theory, this is a time for disequilibrium. This is an
opportunity for students to test their predictions, problem solve, research, ultimately find
out themselves.)
Explain
Following the explore stage I would next go onto the “Explain” stage of the lesson.
During this stage I would use what students had discovered in the explore stage to help
them build a concept. I would try to encourage the students to explain concepts and
definitions in their own words, ask for justification and clarification before providing them
with new labels, definitions and theory.
Elaborate
The next stage is the stage that will be KEY in assessing their progress, knowledge and
understanding. Students may work independently during this stage to demonstrate
learning. This is where students formalise and apply their learning.
Extend
In some cases you may require an additional “Extend” stage. In this stage you are
encouraging the students to apply or extend the concepts and skills in new situations.
Students make connections not just in the subject/ideas studied but also beyond it.
They are able to apply ideas/generalise and transfer principles.
Evaluate
While it is expected that evaluation will continue throughout the process, the evaluate
section is the section where you the teacher evaluate the learning that has occurred.
This should also include self-reflection and evaluation from the student. I personally link
back to the learning outcomes to assess the progress that has been made.
The study of instructional design is eclectic and full of history. From its
roots in cognitive psychology and the training of troops in World War II to the rise
of the systematic instructional design models, researchers have worked to
provide those designing instruction a process by which not only could they
create meaningful instruction more quickly, but also to consider the diversity of
learners and learning contexts as well as the difference in the types of content to
be learned.
References:
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 Molenda, Michael & Reigeluth, Charles & Nelson, Laurie. (2003). Instructional
Design (107). 10.1002/0470018860.s00683.
 Campos, T. (1999). Gagné’s contributions to the study of instruction.
http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/
knowledgebase/theorists/cognitivism/gagne.htm
 Clark, D. (2006). Gagné’s nine dull commandments.
http://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com/ 2006/09/gagnes-nine-dull-
commandments.html
 Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction, 2nd edition. New York:
Allyn & Bacon. Unit 6: Gagné’s Instructional Design theory.
http://education.indiana.edu/~p540/webcourse/gagne.html
 Fields, D. (1996). The Impact of Gagné’s Theories on Practice. EDRS-Academic
Search Database.
 Curry, J. H., Johnson, S., & Peacock, R. (2020). Robert Gagné and the
Systematic Design of Instruction. In J. K. McDonald & R. E. West, Design for
Learning: Principles, Processes, and Praxis. EdTech Books. Retrieved from
https://edtechbooks.org/id/robert_gagn_and_systematic_design
 https://waterbearlearning.com/addie-model-instructional-design/#:~:text=What
%20is%20the%20ADDIE%20training,Development%2C%20Implementation%2C
%20and%20Evaluation.
 https://lesley.edu/article/empowering-students-the-5e-model-
explained#:~:text=The%20findings%20of%20Atkin%20and,Explain%2C
%20Elaborate%2C%20and%20Evaluate.
 https://knilt.arcc.albany.edu/The_7E_Model

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Republic of the Philippines

DON MARIANO MARCOS MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY

NAME: CRISTETA L. RAMOLETE

Theories and Models of

It is clear that designing and

• Evaluation: How will we evaluate

• Instructional strategy: What is the

ROLES OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

• Improving learning and instruction by following a systematic approach

THEORIES AND MODELS

ENTRY BEHAVIORS AND CHARACTERISTICS

CRITERION REFENCE TEST ITEMS

appropriately to each. For example, distinguishing when to use a Phillips-head or a

GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Event three: Stimulate recall of prior learning. Stimulating recall of prior

Event six: Elicit performance. Eliciting performance allows learners to apply

Event seven: Provide feedback. Hand in hand with eliciting performance in a

Event eight: Assess performance. Following the opportunity to practice the

5 E’s is an instructional model based on the constructivist approach to learning,

 Explore: Activity which gives students time to think and investigate/test/make

 Explain: Activity which allows students to analyze their exploration. Student’s

Refers to previous activities. Uses recorded observations in

 Elaborate: Activity which expands and solidifies student thinking and/or

 Evaluate: Activity which allows the teacher to assess student performance

The 7E instructional model is a common learning cycle used by science

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