Elastic critical moment of flat and

corrugated web steel girders, stress

analysis under various boundary and
loading conditions
Mathilde RAME

DÉPARTEMENT GÉNIE CIVIL

Mémoire présenté en vue de l’obtention du diplôme d’Ingénieur

Option Génie Civil

Février – Juillet 2023

 : Polytech Clermont Ferrand - Département Génie Civil

2, Av. Blaise Pascal – TSA 60206 – CS 60026 - F 63178 Aubière Cedex (France)
 : Secrétariat : +33 (0)4 73 40 76 87 Scolarité : +33 (0)4 73 40 75 05
 : +33 (0)4 73 40 75 10 - Mèl : dept.gc@polytech.univ-bpclermont.fr
Table des matières
I. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 4

II. Generality .............................................................................................................................................................. 5

1. History and Application ................................................................................................................................. 5

2. Mixed construction : steel-concrete .............................................................................................................. 8

III. Literature review ............................................................................................................................................10

1. Cross-section classification- Eurocode 3 ...................................................................................................10

2. Stability behaviour of I-sections ..................................................................................................................12

2.1. Flat web I-sections ...............................................................................................................................12

1.1.1 Global stability..................................................................................................................................13

1.1.2 Element type buckling.....................................................................................................................16

1.1.3 Lateral-distortional buckling mode ...............................................................................................21

2.2. Corrugated web I-sections ..................................................................................................................21

1.1.4 Global stability..................................................................................................................................22

1.1.5 Element type buckling.....................................................................................................................27

2.3. Elastic critical moment of flat web ....................................................................................................30

IV. Problem statement .........................................................................................................................................32

 Comparison efficiency corrugated and flat web girders .................................................................32

 Comparison lateral-torsional buckling corrugated and flat web girders ......................................32

V. Bibliographie .......................................................................................................................................................34

2
3
 I. Introduction

This bibliography is part of a research and development project focusing on strength of construction
materials. It proceeds of a previous work made by Tony Fléchon on similar subjects during his final year at
Polytech Clermont. This research acts as a preview for a research internship in Budapest next semester
within a laboratory specialized on strength of construction. It is focused on flat and corrugated web steel
girders, determining its elastic critical moment and stress analysis under various boundary and loading
conditions. Many studies have been made on flat web girders, a commonly used material on worksites
nowadays. However, new research has emerged recently on corrugated web girders. The latter being
increasingly used in the structural engineering praxis due to their numerous favourable properties.

I aim to demonstrate the mechanical behaviour of this type of beam using a mixed corpus made of academic
thesis, civil engineering journals articles as well as technical notes. I will also resort to official documentation
such as the European standards, or Eurocode 3, which covers all the rules concerning flat planar plated
structures. I will then explain the different instabilities and weaknesses that these walls suffer according to
the loads applied.

Then, I plan to compare the theoretical analyses with practical tests, using finite element methods with the
Ansys software. This working shell model allows to study stresses under various loading conditions with
linear numerical simulations.

By doing so, I intend to present a synthetic review of the technical literature and to compare my research
with the latest scientific literature as well as with concrete tests.

4
 II. Generality
1. History and Application

Since the late 19th century, steel plate girder is commonly used for the construction of bridges and more
specifically, it was used in construction of railroad bridges. Steel plate girder bridges are regularly utilized in
spans ranging from 30 to 120 meters and are very popular due to their efficiency and simplicity of
implementation. One of the many examples is the Scudder Falls Bridge (figure 1) connecting Pennsylvania
(USA) and New Jersey (USA) over the Delaware River. This structure was built in less than a year between
1958 and 1959, it measures 530 meters long in total and its longest span is 55 meters. [1]

Figure 1 : Scudder Falls Bridge, USA (Structurae.net)

The general principle of a beam is that the web takes the compression forces and transmits those
of shear to the beam, while the flanges support the external loads. However, the flat web loses its stability
and deforms for reasons we will see later in this report, and that is why alternatives using corrugated web
steel girders have been sought. Indeed, the corrugated plates increase the stability by decreasing the risk of
buckling which was, in the case of the flat webs, made with the assistance of web stiffeners [2]. A
presentation of these two types of beams can be seen in figure 2.

Moreover, transversal and longitudinal stiffeners alter the web's shear and flexural behaviour. Longitudinal
stiffeners divide the web's buckling length by acting as an untrainable rigid point to buckling. Transversal
stiffeners separated the beams into small panels, making global buckling difficult; it also works as an
untrainable rigid point to shear force.

Figure 2 : Web stiffener (left) and corrugated web (right)

5

Figure 3 : Cognac bridge, Charente (FRANCE)
The first ever bridge made with corrugated web steel
girders was built in France in 1986. It is called the Cognac bridge
(figure 3); its total length is 105 meters, and its maximum span
is 43 meters. Other bridges using this technology have been
built in France such as the Maupre bridge, built in 1987 with a
total length of 325 meters and maximum span of 53 meters;
the Dole bridge built in 1993 with a total length of 496 meters
and maximum span of 80 meters and finally the Meaux bridge
built in 2004 with a total length of 1.196 meters and a
maximum span of 93 meters.

In our days, the leaders in this type of bridge are Japan and China. Japan currently has nearly 200
bridges using corrugated web girders, including the one with the world's longest girder span, the Aigawa
Bridge (figure 4). This bridge was built in 2017 for an expressway in the northern part of Ibaraki City in
Osaka Prefecture. The main characteristic of this work is that it has been realized with the cantilever
execution method using high-strength prestressing steel strands. It is composed of two separate viaducts
with a total length configuration of 636 meters and 545.5 meters. The longest span is 179 and 170 meters
respectively. [3]

Figure 4 : Aigawa Bridge, Osaka (JAPAN) (structurae.net)

Corrugated web steel girders can also be used in the construction of buildings, mainly industrial
buildings (figure 5). It allows to reduce the weight of the structure compared to the use of traditional I-
beams, while maintaining its strength. Compared to a flat web beam, we find the same advantages as
presented before and according to studies conducted by Moussa LENLOUBA, Abdul Saboor KARZAD,
Sami W. TABSH and Samer BARAKAT [4], this type of construction can be designed economically to
achieve material volume reductions of 20% with thinner webs and no requirement for transverse stiffeners.

6
 Figure 5 : Application of corrugated web steel girders in building

To speak about the companies which commercialise this type of beam, only one is present in France
and it is called: NailWeb. The particularity is that this company is the only one, in the world, in the last 40
years, to realize I-beams resulting from the alliance of wood and steel (figure 6). These beams are mostly
used in roofing (purlins, rafters), in floors or in attic constructions and have the following characteristics:

Profile length up to 15m

Profile width 232 to 494 mm
Profile weight 4 to 12kg/m

Figure 6 : NailWeb beam

Worldwide, there is also an Austrian company, called Zeman, that offers custom-made corrugated web
girders (figure 7) according to the customer's needs through machine programming.

Profile length 4 to 16 m
Profile width 333 to 1.500 mm
Web thickness 1,5 to 3,0 mm

Figure 7 : Zeman beam

7
Finally, there is a Chinese company that, thanks to industrialization, cuts, assembles and welds H-beams
with a production line speed of 700mm/min, it is the Jinggong company.

Profile length 4 to 16 m
Profile width 300 to 1.500 mm
Web thickness 2 to 6 mm

Figure 8 : Jinggong industrialization

2. Mixed construction : steel-concrete

As we have seen from the examples given above, the combination of steel and concrete is regularly
used. Indeed, it allows to obtain the advantages of mixed constructions. The main idea of mixed
construction is to connect two materials together to constitute an element that resists the stresses and strains
on them. In our case, the concrete is used to resist compressive forces and steel to resist tensile and shear
forces. However, this combination can increase the strength and stiffness of the metal profile only if the
link between the two materials is well ensured. The purpose is to have a monolithic behaviour, which means
a homogeneous section, to avoid a relative slip between the steel and the concrete.

 In the first case (figure 9), where there is no connection, there is no mixed action, and each
element acts independently. Each element will absorb half of the applied effort.

Figure 9 : Without connection

1 𝟏
Moment of inertia ∶ 𝐼 = 2 ∗ ∗ 𝑏ℎ 3 = ∗ 𝒃𝒉𝟑 (𝟏)
12 𝟔

1 𝟏
Bending module ∶ 𝑊 = 2 ∗ ∗ 𝑏ℎ 2 = ∗ 𝒃𝒉𝟐 (𝟐)
6 𝟑

8
  In the second case (figure 10), where the connection is complete, the section can be described
as "homogeneous" and we notice that the moment of inertia is 4 times more important than in
the basic case and that the deflections of this beam will be 4 times less important than in the
basic case. An interaction is said to be complete when the connection between the metallic and
concrete part is infinitely rigid, which means that the connection does not deform significantly
under applied moments. In this case, there is no slip between the slab and the steel beam and
the deformations of both elements at their interface are equal. The structure can then be
assimilated to a beam with a single neutral axis.

Figure 10 : Total connection

1 𝟐
Moment of inertia ∶ 𝐼 = ∗ 𝑏(2ℎ)3 = ∗ 𝒃𝒉𝟑 (𝟑)
12 𝟑

1 𝟐
Bending module ∶ 𝑊 = ∗ 𝑏(2ℎ)2 = ∗ 𝒃𝒉𝟐 (𝟒)
6 𝟑

Moreover, if we compare the stresses, we notice that the unbounded beams are subjected to twice as much
stress as the bounded beams.

In reality, the complete interaction between steel and concrete is difficult to achieve due to the connectors
being more or less deformable. This condition is often interpreted as partial interaction. The stiffness of
such a beam is therefore less than the stiffness of a beam of a beam with complete interaction, but higher
than the stiffness of a beam without interaction.

9
III. Literature review
1. Cross-section classification- Eurocode 3

[5][6] Eurocode 3 defines very precisely four classes of cross-sections according to: the slenderness
of each element, the compressive stress distribution, and the performance requirements for resistance of
bending moments. This classification will allow us to analyse our practical test results later. The design values
of resistance also depend on the classification of the cross-section.

The classification of the sections is also based on 3 principles which are that - as the plate elements
are relatively thin, when loaded in compression they may buckle locally - the axial load carrying capacity or
bending resistance of the section may be restricted by the tendency of any plate element inside the cross
section to buckle, which prevents the section from reaching yield - by restricting the width-to-thickness ratio
for particular elements inside the cross section, early failure brought on by the effects of local buckling can
be avoided.

The four classes are represented on the figure 11 and five notions are important for the
continuation: Mpc represents the plastic moment capacity, Mec is the elastic moment capacity, Mu is the
ultimate moment strength of the cross-section, and finally R and R0 are respectively the available rotation
capacity of the cross-section and the required rotation capacity. In the first class, the characteristics are Mu
≥ Mpc and R ≥ R0 which reflects the fact that to enable the redistribution of moments in steel frames, the
plastic moment capacity can be produced with enough rotational strength. For the second class, there is Mu
≥ Mpc, the cross-section can reach its plastic moment resistance but with limited rotation capacity due to
local buckling. Local buckling that occurs after the elastic moment capacity but before the plastic moment
capacity is known as a class 3 cross-section with Mec ≤ Mu < Mp. Local buckling occurs for a class 4 cross-
section before the elastic moment capacity is reached (Mu < Mec).

Figure 11 : Cross-section classification of beams

10
The tables presented below in figure 12 are used to find the limiting proportions for internal compression
parts and flanges.

Figure 12 : Maximum width-to-thickness ratio

In addition, the Eurocode states that “a cross-section is classified according to the highest (least favourable)
class of its compression parts”.

A steel beam can also be classified according to its web. There are three main types, which are
identified in the figure 13.

Figure 13 : Types of web

11
 2. Stability behaviour of I-sections

2.1. Flat web I-sections

As summarised by Tony Fléchon in his thesis [7], “the shear constraint can be considered as constant
along the web for corrugated web. In comparison, an I-beams have a curved shear constraint equation along
the web, with the extremum point 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the mid-heigh of the beam (figure 14)”.

Figure 14 : Comparison of shear constraint in corrugated and flat web

Based on this and on the studies conducted by Gardner, Fieber and Macorini [8], the graph figure
15 was made. It is representative of the buckling coefficients for I-sections under combined axial
compression and major axis bending in which the web is the critical element. For example, it can be seen
that the back-calculated buckling coefficients k lie within the theoretical limits defined by the isolated plates
with “simply-supported” and fixed boundary conditions and that depending on the cross-section geometry,
the level of element interaction can vary significantly for a given stress distribution. Also, in this same graph,
a stress distribution of 𝜑𝑤 = 1 corresponds to pure compression in the web, while 𝜑𝑤 =−1 corresponds to
pure bending in the web.

Figure 15 : Buckling coefficients for I-sections in which the web is the critical element

12
 1.1.1 Global stability
1.1.1.1 Flexural behavior
Bending is the deformation of an object under the action of a load. This can be illustrated as follows:

Figure 16 : Flexural behavior of a beam

The flexural design is well described in the Eurocode 3 section 6.2.5 with the bending resistance 𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑
depending on the class of the cross-section:

𝑊𝑝𝑙 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1 𝑜𝑟 2
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑒𝑙,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝑀𝑐,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑀𝑒𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 3 (5)
𝛾𝑀0
𝑊𝑒𝑓𝑓,𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑦
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
{ 𝛾𝑀0

Where:

𝑾𝒆𝒇𝒇,𝒎𝒊𝒏 and 𝑾𝒆𝒍,𝒎𝒊𝒏 corresponds to the fibre with the maximum elastic stress
𝑾𝒑𝒍 is the plastic section modulus of the member

We can also calculate the non-dimensional slenderness 𝜆̅ for flexural buckling with section 6.3.1.3 of the
Eurocode 3:

𝐴𝑓𝑦 𝐿𝑐𝑟 1
√ = 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3
𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖 𝜆1
𝜆̅ = 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓
(6)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦 𝐿𝑐𝑟 √
𝐴
√ = 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
{ 𝑁𝑐𝑟 𝑖 𝜆1

13
Where:

𝑳𝒄𝒓 is the buckling length in the buckling plane considered

𝒊 is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis, determined using the properties of the gross cross-section

𝐸 235
𝝀𝟏 = 𝜋 √ = 93,9𝜀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 = √
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦

1.1.1.2 Flexural-torsional buckling

Flexural-torsional buckling can occur only with unsymmetrical cross-sections with one axis of
symmetry. It is a compression member instability involving a combination of member bending and twisting.
The behavior of such a beam can be seen in the figure in section 1.1.3.

As for the flexural behavior, Eurocode 3 gives information to calculate the non-dimensional
slenderness 𝜆̅ 𝑇 for torsional-flexural buckling.

𝐴𝑓𝑦
√ 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 1, 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3
𝑁𝑐𝑟
̅̅̅
𝜆𝑇 = (7)
𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑦
√ 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 4
{ 𝑁𝑐𝑟

Where:

𝑵𝒄𝒓 = 𝑵𝒄𝒓,𝑻𝑭 is the elastic torsional-flexural buckling force

1.1.1.3 Lateral-torsional buckling

The lateral-torsional buckling should not be confused with flexural-torsional buckling. LTB occurs
to I beams that are subjected to bending moments, so it is a bending instability whereas FTB occurs to
members subjected to compressive loads. As the name implies, this instability involves simultaneously the
twisting of the member and the lateral buckling of the compression flange. Indeed, when a beam is loaded,
it will deflect vertically and if the beam does not have sufficient lateral stiffness or lateral support along its
length, the beam will also deflect out of the plane of loading [9]. The figure figure 17 illustrates and provides
details of this behaviour:

14
 Figure 17 : Lateral-torsional buckling

The authors of the article [9] also state that “for an idealized perfectly straight elastic beam, there will
be no out-of-plane deformations until the applied moment reaches the critical value 𝑀𝑏 ”. To determine this
value of lateral torsional buckling resistance, they used the “knee joint” method which consists of tracing
two tangents on a moment/lateral displacement graph. The intersection of these two lines then gives the
𝑀𝑏 value.

Before looking at the formulas for lateral-torsional buckling given by Eurocode 3, there are two
important properties to respect:

(1) “Laterally unrestrained member subject to major axis bending should be verified against lateral-
torsional buckling as follows”:
𝑀𝐸𝑑
≤ 1,0 (8)
𝑀𝑏,𝑅𝑑
Where 𝑴𝑬𝒅 is the design value of the moment
𝑴𝒃,𝑹𝒅 is the design buckling resistance moment

(2) “Beams with sufficient restraint to the compression flange are not susceptible to lateral-torsional
buckling. In addition, beams with certain types of cross-sections, such as square or circular hollow
sections, fabricated circular tubes or square box sections are not susceptible to lateral-torsional
buckling.”

According to EN 1993-1-1 clause 6.3.2.3, which is a special case concerning welded sections, we can
calculate the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling χLT:

15
 χ𝐿𝑇 ≤ 1,0
1
χ𝐿𝑇 = but { χ ≤ 1 (9)
ф𝐿𝑇 +√ф2𝐿𝑇 −𝛽𝜆
̅2 𝐿𝑇 ̅2
𝜆
𝐿𝑇 𝐿𝑇

ф𝐿𝑇 = 0,5[1 + 𝛼𝐿𝑇 (𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 − 𝜆̅𝐿𝑇,0 ) + 𝛽𝜆̅2𝐿𝑇 ] (10)

𝑊𝑦 𝑓𝑦
𝜆̅𝐿𝑇 = √ (11)
𝑀𝑐𝑟

Where :

𝝀̅𝑳𝑻 is the non-dimensional slenderness

𝝀̅𝑳𝑻,𝟎 is the relative slenderness limit with a minimum value of 0,4

𝜶𝑳𝑻 is an imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate buckling curve in figure 18 and figure 19

Figure 18 : Recommended values for imperfection factors for lateral torsional buckling curves

Figure 19 : Recommendation for the selection of lateral torsional buckling curve for cross-sections

𝑾𝒚 is the appropriate section modulus considering the cross-section

𝑴𝒄𝒓 is the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling:

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧 𝑘𝑧 2 𝐼𝑤 𝐺𝑙 2 2
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶1 {√( ) + 𝐼𝑡 + (𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 ) − 𝐶2 𝑧𝑔 } (12)
(𝑘2 𝐿)2 𝑘𝑤 𝐼𝑧 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑧

𝜷 is the multiplication factor with a minimum value of 0,75

LTB is particularly relevant for long, slender beams with a high aspect ratio, ratio of length to thickness.
1.1.2 Element type buckling
1.1.2.1 Shear buckling
This local shear buckling can be determined by an equation stated by Bulson in The stability of flat plates [10]:

𝜋 2𝐸 𝑡𝑤 2
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐿 = 𝑘𝐿 ( ) (13)
12(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑤

Where:

𝑬 is Young’s modulus of elasticity (210.000 MPa)

16
𝝂 is Poisson’s ratio (0,3)
𝒘 is the maximum fold width (for corrugated web, it is the maximum of flat panel width b and inclined
panel width c (figure 26))
𝒌𝑳 is the local shear buckling coefficient and depends on the boundary conditions:
𝑤 2
- all edges simply supported: 𝑘𝐿 = 5,34 + 4 ( ℎ )

𝑤 𝑤 2 𝑤 3
- vertical edges simply supported, horizontal edges clamped: 𝑘𝐿 = 5,34 + 2,31 ( ℎ ) − 3,44 ( ℎ ) + 8,39 ( ℎ )

𝑤 2
- all edges clamped: 𝑘𝐿 = 8,98 + 5,6 ( ℎ )

Another method can be approach with the Direct Strength Method (DSM). This method was
developed by Pham and Hancock in 2010 [11] and is a new design procedure for cold-formed steel
members. The method employs elastic buckling solutions for the cross-section, instead of the element-by-
element plate buckling solutions used in traditional design. I will not detail this method as it focuses mainly
on the C-sections but it can be very useful to predict the shear capacity of beams or to calculate the nominal
section moment capacity at local buckling 𝑀𝑠𝑙 :

𝑀𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆𝑙 ≤ 0,776
0,4 0,4
𝑀𝑠𝑙 = { 𝑀𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑜𝑙 (14)
[1 − 0,15 ( ) ]( ) 𝑀𝑦
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑦

Where:

𝑀𝑦
𝝀𝒍 is the non-dimensional slenderness: 𝜆𝑙 = √ ⁄𝑀 and 𝑀𝑦 = 𝑧𝑓 𝑓𝑦
𝑜𝑙

𝑴𝒐𝒍 is the elastic local buckling moment of the section: 𝑀𝑜𝑙 = 𝑧𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑙
𝒛𝒇 is the section modulus about a horizontal axis of the full section

𝒇𝒐𝒍 is the elastic local buckling stress of the section in bending

The section 5 of EN 1993-1-5 covers also shear strength calculations. Firstly, a distinction must be
made between two cases depending on the ratio height (ℎ𝑤 ) to the thickness (𝑡𝑤 ) of the web:

ℎ𝑤 72
𝑡𝑤
≥ 𝜂
𝜀 for an unstiffened web

ℎ𝑤 31
𝑡𝑤
≥ 𝜂
𝜀√𝑘𝑡 for a stiffened web

Where :

235
𝜺=√𝑓
𝑦

17
𝒌𝒕 is the coefficient for local buckling for transversely stiffened webs

𝜼 = 1,20 for steel grades up to and including S460. For higher steel grades 𝜂 = 1,00 is recommended.

Then, we can differentiate two cases of design, shear design strength of the web and shear design
strength of the flanges.

 Shear design strength of the web

𝜒𝑤 𝑓𝑦𝑤 ℎ𝑤 𝑡𝑤
𝑉𝑏𝑤,𝑅𝑑 = (15)
√3𝛾𝑀1

The equation (15) is given by EN 1993-1-5 to find the shear design strength of the web where:

𝜸𝑴𝟏 is the partial factor (𝛾𝑀1 = 1)

𝝌𝒘 is the shear buckling factor that can be obtained from figure 20 or figure 21. In both cases, it depends
on the modified slenderness 𝜆̅𝑤 . Several formulas and rules are described in clause 5.3 of Eurocode 3 part
1-5 to determine this criterion according to the position of the stiffener on the beam and if it is rigid or
semi-rigid.

Figure 20 : Contribution from the web χw to shear buckling resistance

Figure 21 : Shear buckling factor χw

In addition, the Eurocode gives the expressions of the shear buckling coefficient 𝑘𝑡 for the two basic cases
shown in figure 22. The Eurocode specifies that “for plates with rigid transverse stiffeners and without

18
longitudinal stiffeners or with more than two longitudinal stiffeners, the shear buckling coefficient 𝑘𝜏 can
be obtained as follows”:

ℎ𝑤 2 𝑎
𝑘𝜏 = 5,34 + 4 ( ) + 𝑘𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ≥1 (16)
𝑎 ℎ𝑤

ℎ𝑤 2 𝑎
𝑘𝜏 = 4 + 5,34 ( ) + 𝑘𝜏𝑠𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ≤1 (17)
𝑎 ℎ𝑤

𝐼𝑠𝑙
6,3 + 0,18 3
𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑤 𝐼𝑠𝑙 𝑎
𝑘𝜏 = 4,1 + 2 + 2,23 √ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ≤ 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑠 (18)
𝑎 ℎ𝑤 ℎ𝑤
( )
ℎ𝑤

Figure 22 : Type of stiffeners for the calculation of 𝑘𝜏

 Shear design strength of the flange

Local instability does not significantly reduce the bearing capacity of beams with tiny heigh web
dimensions. As a result, the shear strength design of the web can only be determined with the web's
contribution. The shear strength of the flanges is sometimes ignored. However, the following equation can
be applied to it:

2
𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓2 𝑓𝑦𝑓 𝑀𝑒𝑑
𝑉𝑏𝑓,𝑅𝑑 = [1 − ( ) ] (19)
𝑐𝛾𝑀1 𝑀𝑓,𝑅𝑑

Where :

𝒃𝒇 and 𝒕𝒇 are taken for the flange which provides the least axial resistance

𝒃𝒇 being taken as not larger than 15𝜀𝑡𝑓 on each side of the web

𝑴𝒇,𝑹𝒅 is the moment of resistance of the cross section consisting of the effective area of the flanges only:

𝑀𝑓,𝑘
𝑀𝑓,𝑅𝑑 = (20)
𝛾𝑀0

16𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓2𝑓𝑦𝑓
𝒄 the distance between the plastic hinges: 𝑐 = 𝑎 (0,25 + 2 𝑓
𝑡 ℎ𝑤
)
𝑦𝑤

19
 1.1.2.2 Bending type buckling

Structural steel elements in construction are most commonly characterized by their high slenderness
compared to other traditional building materials such as concrete. When a structure is subjected to
compression, its strength is affected negatively by the effects of its slenderness. This reduction in the
strength of structural elements due to their slenderness results in structural instability.

In his thesis, Hamilton [12] noticed “that the failure in some specimens was initiated by local
buckling of one of the corrugation folds and then propagated to other folds”.

Indeed, the local buckling phenomenon comes from

the fact that the cross sections of steel shapes tend to
consist of an assembly of thin plates.

If the cross section of a steel form is subjected to high

compressive loads, the thin plates that make up the
cross section may buckle before the entire strength of
the member is reached (figure 23).

The member capacity is attained when a cross

sectional piece fails to buckle.

As a result, local buckling becomes a limit state for the

strength of compressively stressed steel forms.

Figure 23 : General vs local buckling

Two types of elements should then be considered, stiffened and unstiffened element. The first one
is braced at both ends (web) when the other one is braced at only one end (flange). The latter is much more
likely to have local buckling.

The role of cross-section classification is to identify the extent to which their strength and rotational
capacity are limited by the occurrence of local buckling. To give an order, class 4 is the most likely to buckle
and class 1 is the least. A thin plate subjected to compressive stress warps under a critical elastic stress. For
a section to be classified as Class 3 or better, the critical elastic buckling stress must be greater than the yield
stress. The following formula is given by EN 1993-1-5:

𝜎𝑐𝑟 = 𝑘𝜎 𝜎𝐸 > 𝑓𝑦 (21)

Where:
𝜋²𝐸 𝑡 2
𝝈𝑬 = 12(1−𝜈2 ) (𝑏) is Euler critical stress

20
𝒌𝝈 is the buckling coefficient
𝒃 is given Annex A EN 1993-1-5
𝒕 is the thickness of the plate
1.1.3 Lateral-distortional buckling mode
Bradford [13] presents in his book the principle of lateral-distortional buckling which results from
the interaction between two modes of member buckling. These two modes are the most common buckling
modes of steel members considered in design which are lateral-torsional [14] and local buckling [15]. The
cross-sections of the member translate and twist like rigid bodies in lateral-torsional buckling. Local
buckling, on the other hand, is defined by localised cross-sectional distortions across a short wavelength in
the absence of lateral translation. Bradford characterised distortional buckling as “simultaneous lateral
deflections and cross-sectional distortions at bifurcation of equilibrium”. To illustrate this, the following
figure shows the different buckling modes mentioned.

Figure 24 : Different type of buckling

2.2. Corrugated web I-sections

Corrugated web beams can be simply defined as built-up girders with a thin-walled, corrugated web and
wide plate flanges.

The Austrian Zeman group [16] specified that “as a result of its profiling, the web does not participate
in the transfer of longitudinal normal stresses from bending. This means that in static terms, the corrugated
web beam corresponds to a lattice girder in which the bending moments and the normal forces are
transferred only via the flanges, while the transverse forces are only transferred through the diagonals and
verticals of the lattice girder – in this case the corrugated web”.

21
There are two possible profiles for this type of beam, trapezoidal or sinusoidal corrugated webs as shown
in figure 25. The profiling of the web usually prevents beam failure due to lack of stability before the plastic
limit-loading for the web is achieved. Aside from advantages in manufacturing technique, sinusoidal
corrugation provides the advantage over trapezoidal profile of eliminating local buckling of flat plate strips.

Figure 25 : Trapezoidal and sinusoidal corrugated webs

1.1.4 Global stability

The global buckling is introduced by Hassanein and Kharoob [15] and it is a buckling mode where the
member deforms with no deformation in its cross-sectional shape. In other words, it is the buckling of
whole members. The global elastic buckling stress 𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐺 can be defined as :

𝑘𝐺 𝐷𝑥0,25 𝐷𝑦0,75
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐺 = 2
(22)
𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑤

Where :

𝒌𝑮 is the global shear buckling coefficient which depends on the assumed boundary conditions between the
web and the flange (31,6 for simply supported and 59,2 for clamped)

𝑫𝒙 is the transverse bending stiffness per unit length of the corrugated web:

3
𝑞 𝐸𝑡𝑤
𝐷𝑥 = (23)
𝑠 12

𝑫𝒚 is the longitudinal bending stiffness per unit length of the corrugated web:

𝐸𝐼𝑦
𝐷𝑦 = (24)
𝑞

𝑰𝒚 is the second moment of area of one wavelength of the corrugated web about its own centroidal axis:

𝑡ℎ𝑟2 𝑐
𝐼𝑦 = ( + 𝑏) (25)
2 3

𝒒, 𝒔, 𝒕, 𝒉𝒓 , 𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 are geometrical parameter shown in figure 26.

22
 Figure 26 : Corrugation configuration and geometric notation

1.1.4.1 Flexural behavior

Inaam and Upadhyay [17] reported that there is a significant contribution of the web in the case of
steel trapezoidal corrugated girders with compact flanges. Indeed, before them, most of the researchers
neglected the contribution of webs by focusing their works on the flexural capacities of corrugated web
girders with slender flanges and computed moment resistance using top and bottom flanges only. The major
reason is the low axial rigidity of girders with corrugated webs which allows the beam to contract and stretch
easily. This phenomenon is also known as the accordion effect which is the longitudinal flexibility of the
web. The other reason is that top and bottom flanges are the key flexural elements. By neglecting the flexural
contribution of the webs, the researchers can lead to false estimates of flexural capacity because the
accordion effect varies significantly with the profile of the corrugation.

In their research, Inaam and Upadhyay [17] introduced the web participation with a ratio
𝑡𝑤,𝑒𝑓𝑓
representing the portion of the web that participates in the moment resistance, ⁄𝑡 . 𝑡𝑤,𝑒𝑓𝑓 is the
𝑤

effective thickness of the web which resists flexural stresses. Their work also showed that “web participation
decreases significantly when the corrugation angle increases from 10° to 50°”. The web participation being
the inverse of the accordion effect, “the accordion effect increases significantly when the corrugation angle
increases from 10° to 50°”. To conclude on this part, the web participation influences the ease of contraction
and stretching of the beam. The higher it is, the easier it is to contract and stretch and therefore the lower
the accordion effect is and vice versa.

23
 The Eurocode 3 provides formulas for the bending resistance 𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 taking only the contribution
of the flanges:

𝑑
𝑏𝑓1 𝑡𝑓1 𝑓𝑦𝑓,𝑟
𝛾𝑀0
𝑑
𝑀𝑝𝑙,𝑅𝑑 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑓2 𝑡𝑓2 𝑓𝑦𝑓,𝑟 (26)
𝛾𝑀0
𝑑
𝑏𝑓1 𝑡𝑓1 𝜒𝑓𝑦𝑓
{ 𝛾𝑀0

Figure 27 : Notation for corrugated

web I-section
Where:
𝑡𝑓1 +𝑡𝑓2
𝒅 is the distance between the centre of application 𝑑 = ℎ𝑤 + 2
𝝌 is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode (EN 1993-1-1, 6.3)
𝒇𝒚𝒇,𝒓 is the reduce yield stress due to the transversal moment 𝑀𝑧
𝑓𝑦𝑓,𝑟 = 𝑓𝑇 𝑓𝑦𝑓 (27)

6𝑀𝑧 𝛾𝑀0
𝑓𝑇 = 1 − 0,4√ (28)
𝑓𝑦𝑓 𝑏𝑓2 𝑡𝑓

𝑉 ℎ𝑟
𝑀𝑧 = 𝑏 (29)
ℎ𝑤 2

𝒃𝒇𝒊 , 𝒕𝒇𝒊 figure 27

1.1.4.2 Flexural-torsional behavior

Moon et al. [18] investigated the flexural–torsional buckling strength of an I-girder with corrugated
steel webs under linear moment gradient focusing their investigation with a real loading condition such as
non-uniform bending. Before them, some researchers such as Sayed-Ahmed [19], Moon et al. [20] and
Nguyen et al. [21], studied the flexural–torsional buckling strength of the I-girder with corrugated steel webs
with a series of finite element analyses and proposed a warping constant theoretically.

Moon et al. [20] proposed the elastic flexural–torsional buckling strength of the I-girder with
corrugated steel webs under uniform bending 𝑀𝑜𝑐𝑟 that can be expressed as:

𝜋 𝜋 𝐸𝐶𝑤,𝑐𝑜
𝑀𝑜𝑐𝑟 = √𝐸𝐼𝑦,𝑐𝑜 𝐺𝑐𝑜 𝐽𝑐𝑜 √1 + 𝑊 2 , 𝑊 = √ (30)
𝑙 𝑙 𝐺𝑐𝑜 𝐽𝑐𝑜

Where:
𝒍 is the length of the I-girder

24
𝑾 is the torsional slenderness which represents the effect of warping torsional stiffness
𝑰𝒚,𝒄𝒐 is the second moment of inertia about the weak axis

𝑮𝒄𝒐 is the shear modulus of the corrugated plate

𝑱𝒄𝒐 is the pure torsional constant of the I-girder with corrugated steel webs
𝑪𝒘,𝒄𝒐 is the warping constant of the I-girder with corrugated steel webs

Based on a similar approach to that of the I-girder with flat webs, it is possible to express the flexural-
torsional buckling strength 𝑀𝑐𝑟 (non-uniform bending) where 𝐶𝑏 is the moment gradient correction factor:

𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝐶𝑏 𝑀𝑜𝑐𝑟 (31)

In addition to the expression of elastic flexural-torsional buckling strength, it is possible to evaluate the
𝑖𝑛
inelastic flexural-torsional strength 𝑀𝑐𝑟 by using the buckling curve from Eurocode 3. The inelastic
flexural–torsional buckling strength allows to take into consideration the effects of material inelasticity,
initial imperfection, and residual stress.

𝑖𝑛 (32)
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = 𝜒𝐿𝑇 𝑀𝑃

Where:
𝝌𝑳𝑻 is the reduction factor
𝑴𝑷 is the plastic moment of the section

Moon et al. [18] also found that the buckling behavior of the I-girder with corrugated steel webs
differed depending on the number of periods of the corrugation. Thus, the results of their finite elements
analysis are that “for the I-girder with corrugated steel webs having an odd number of half corrugations, the
transverse deformed shape of the flange has double curvatures”. This conclusion is effective to reduce
transverse deformation of the flange prior to buckling. Moreover, the out-of-plane deformation at mid-span
is equal to zero and the maximum deformation occurs at the quarter point of the I-girder.

1.1.4.3 Lateral-torsional buckling

Over the past 20 years, many tests have been carried out on girders to experiment the lateral-torsional
buckling strength.

The lateral-torsional buckling, also known as LTB, is a mode of buckling when beams without
continuous lateral restraint are prone to buckling about their major axis. This principle is detailed by the
authors Elkawas, Hassanein, El Hadidy, El-Boghdadi and Elchalakani [22] by first saying that this
phenomenon “depends upon the unbraced lengths of the girders [and it] is characterised by the twist of the
cross-section and the rigid-body lateral displacement”. I-section plate girders, which fail due to LTB, bear
the bending moment as a force couple in flanges, with compression force in the upper flange and tension

25
force in the opposite flange. As the web prevents the top flange from buckling down, it becomes unstable
and buckles laterally, while the lower tensile flange supports the lateral displacement in the bottom of the
girders. These movements cause the cross-section to rotate about its longitudinal axis and to translate in the
lateral direction, resulting in LTB as shown in figure 28.

Figure 28 : Lateral-torsional buckling mode of typical corrugated web girders

In this same text, they tested 3 girders formed from two flat webs parts and one corrugated web part
and varying the flange width and the web height, they concluded the following:

- by increasing the flange width, it increases much the out of plane stiffness with less increase in the
cross-sectional area. Hence, it will also increase the ultimate moment capacity of the corrugated web girders

- it may be preferable to reduce the web height in order to minimize girder weight without sacrificing
strength

- by increasing the web height, the lateral displacement capacity will decrease considerably (in design
corrugated web girders under pure bending moment)

In their research, Denan et al. [9] also tested three types of beams (2 beams with trapezoid web
profile, 1 beam with a flat web) to study the lateral torsional buckling behavior. Two types of lateral restraint
at the support were also used during the tests, one where the bottom flange of the beam at both ends were
fixed (type A) and the other one where the bottom flange and web which were both restrained from deflect
laterally (type B). Several conclusions could be made with, in addition, finite element analyses, such as:

26
 - the lateral deflection increases linearly with the vertical bending moment. Then, the increase
becomes non-linear, followed by a stage when the deflection increases monotonically.

- the beams with Type B support have higher lateral torsional buckling resistance value that those
with Type A support

- steel beam with trapezoidally corrugated web section have higher resistance to lateral torsional
buckling compared to that of section with flat web

- the beam with trapezoid web profile section with full shape corrugation (hr =B) are better than
the beam with trapezoid web profile section with half shape (hr =0.5B)

- sections with thicker corrugation have higher resistance to lateral torsional buckling

Moreover, the resistance to lateral torsional buckling is going to decrease as the length of the beam with
trapezoid web profile increase and the higher resistance to LTB is due to the higher moment of inertia about
minor axis, Iy for the section with trapezoid web profile.

To examine the corrugated web, some researchers have proposed modifying either the warping
constant 𝐼𝑤 or the torsional constant 𝐼𝑡 of the formulas described in 1.1.1.3 of this document. Because the
tortional stiffness was enhanced, the value or resistance to lateral torsional buckling was raised. Lopes et al.
[23] provided a design that considers a revised value of the torsional constant 𝐼𝑡 as well as the utilization of
C1 and C2 with more precision.

1.1.5 Element type buckling

1.1.5.1 Shear buckling
According to Moon et al. [24], corrugated steel webs carry only shear forces due to the accordion
effect. This shear force can cause three different buckling modes depending on the geometric characteristics
of corrugated webs: local, global and interactive shear buckling.

 First, the local shear buckling is characterized by the buckling of each sub-panels. In fact, we can
describe corrugated webs as “a series of flat rectangular sub-panels supporting each other along
their vertical edges and by the flange along their horizontal edges”. The elastic local shear buckling
𝑒
stress 𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐿 can be expressed as:

𝑒
𝜋 2𝐸 𝑡𝑤 2
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐿 = 𝑘𝐿 ( ) (33)
12(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑤

Where:

𝒌𝑳 is the local shear buckling coefficient

𝒕𝒘 is the web thickness

27
𝒘 is the maximum fold width (maximum of flat panel width and inclined panel width)

 Secondly, the global shear buckling can be characterized by the formation of diagonal buckle over
𝑒
the entire web such as flat plate web. Thus, the elastic global shear buckling stress 𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐺 is given by:

1 3

𝑒
𝐷𝑦4 𝐷𝑥4
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐺 = 36𝛽 2
(34)
𝑡𝑤 ℎ𝑤

Where:
𝜷 is the global buckling factor that depends on the boundary condition
𝑫𝒚 , 𝑫𝒙 are the bending stiffnesses about the y and x axes respectively

 Finally, the interactive shear buckling is between local and global shear buckling modes. Yi et al.
[25] observed that the interactive shear buckling strength is governed by the geometry of corrugated
webs rather than material inelasticity and yielding. Thus, the elastic interactive shear buckling stress
𝑒
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐼 is given by:

1 1 1
𝑒 + 𝑒 = 𝑒
(35)
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐿 𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐺 𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝐼

Figure 29 : Difference between local, interactive and global buckling

By rearranging some equations, Moon et al.[24] proposed the following equation which is important to
satisfy to maximize the shear strength of corrugated steel webs without shear buckling:

28
 𝑑 −1,5 ℎ𝑤 2 𝑤 2
5,34 (𝑡 ) ( ) + 5,72 ( ) 𝜏
𝑡𝑤 𝑡𝑤
𝑤 𝑦
1,10 ≤ 0,36 (36)
30,54 𝐸
[ ]

Hassanein and Kharoob [15] state in their work that among the formulas for design shear buckling
strength 𝜏𝑛,𝑆 proposed by Moon et al. in 2009 [24], Driver et al. in 2006 [26] and Sause and Braxtan in 2011
[27], this last one is the most suitable. This notion is given by the formula (37) and results from observations
made over 22 beams.

1
3
1
𝜏𝑛,𝑆 = 𝜏𝑦 ( 6 ) (37)
(𝜆𝐼,3 ) + 2

Where:
𝝀𝑰,𝟑 is the interactive slenderness parameter (given by formula 15 in [7])
𝑓𝑦
𝝉𝒚 is the yield shear strength 𝜏𝑦 =
√3

1.1.5.2 Bending type buckling

In this part, we are going to focus on web buckling and local flange buckling of corrugated web
girders with trapezoidal profile, two possible failure phenomena. These two modes of failure are explained
and experienced by Ezzeldin [28].

 Local web buckling

The local web buckling is due to the instability of a panel between two folds forming the corrugated
web. Indeed, in this type of failure, the corrugated web works as a series of flat panels that support one
another along their vertical (longer) sides and that are supported by the flanges along their horizontal sides.
A formula is given by Galambos [29] to estimate the elastic critical shear stress 𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝑙 for the local buckling
mode:

𝜋 2𝐸 𝑡𝑤 2
𝜏𝑐𝑟,𝑙 = 𝑘𝑠 ( ) (38)
12(1 − 𝜈 2 ) 𝑏

Where:
𝑏 2
𝒌𝒔 is a shear buckling coefficient for the local buckling mode : 𝑘𝑠 = 5,34 + 4 (ℎ )
𝑤

𝒃 is the panel width (“if the “inclined” panel width a is larger than the “horizontal” panel width b, it should
be considered as the critical width”)
 Local flange buckling

29
 The local buckling of the compression flange of I-section with corrugated webs often depends on the
flange outstand-to-thickness ratio. Some limits are set on this ratio so that the critical stress causing local
flange buckling is not achieved before the yield stress. In his studies, Ezzeldin [28] wanted to check whether
the limits adopted for flat web steel girders were also valid for corrugated web girders. The numerical studies
carried out have thus been able to verify the validity of this issue and have also shown that the flange
outstand-to-thickness ratio should be based on the large outstand of the corrugated web girder’s flange. In
fact, the average flange outstand is traditionally used for girders with plane webs but in the case of corrugated
web girders where the web is parallel to the axis of the girder, there is a large outstand on one side and a
small outstand on the other, it is recommended to use the large outstand flange.

2.3. Elastic critical moment of flat web

According to the work of Timoshenko and Gere [13] and Eurocode 3, the elastic critical moment of a
conventional flat web girder subjected to uniform bending moment is given by the equation (39):

𝜋 𝜋 2
𝑀𝑐𝑟 = √𝐸𝐼𝑧 [( ) 𝐸𝐼𝑤 + 𝐺𝐼𝑡 ] (39)
𝑘. 𝐿 𝑘𝑤 . 𝐿

Where:

𝒌 is the effective length factor about the weak axis rotation

𝑳 is the span of the girder
𝑰𝒛 is the moment of inertia about the minor axis
𝑰𝒘 is the warping constant
𝑰𝒕 is the torsional constant
𝒌𝒘 is the effective length factor with respect to warping

From the works of several researchers such as the authors [20], [19], [21], it has been demonstrated
that the elastic critical moment of the girders with trapezoidally corrugated web and their ultimate strength
are greater than that of girders with flat web. In addition, Jager, Dunai and Kovesdi [30] bring together the
observations made by different researchers and the modifications they have made. Firstly, most researchers
agree that the contribution of the web should be neglected in the moment of inertia around the strong and
weak axes. Secondly, an additional term with a correction factor 𝑐𝑤 in the warping constant is suggested to
consider the increase of the elastic critical moment. Thirdly, the 𝑐𝑤 factor was readjusted based on finite
element studies for trapezoidal and sinusoidal webs. Finally, and still to consider a greater performance, the
following proposals were suggested: use of equivalent web thickness, reduced shear modulus, multiplication
factor on the elastic critical moment of flat web beams.

With all these observations, the following formulas are applied:

30
 𝐿2
𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼𝑤,𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑐𝑤 (40)
𝐸𝜋 2
2
𝑎32 . (ℎ𝑤 + 𝑡𝑓 )
𝑐𝑤 = (41)
𝑐1 𝑢𝑥 (𝑎1 + 𝑎4 )

2
(ℎ𝑤 + 𝑡𝑓 ) (ℎ𝑤 + 𝑡𝑓 ) . (𝑎1 + 𝑎4 )3
𝑢𝑥 = + (42)
2𝐺𝑎1 𝑡𝑤 𝑐2 𝑎12 𝐸𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓3

𝑐𝑤
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑡,𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 + (43)
𝐺

Where:

𝑰𝒘,𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒕 is the warping constant of flat web girder

𝒂𝒊 see figure 30
𝒄𝟏 =8 and 𝒄𝟐 =25 for flat web or 𝒄𝟏 =22 and 𝒄𝟐 =300 for trapezoidally and sinusoidally corrugated web
girders

Figure 30 : Notations

31
IV. Problem statement
 Comparison efficiency corrugated and flat web girders
To compare the efficiency of both, corrugated web and flat web, the document Behaviour of Plate
Girder With Flat Web And Corrugated Web [31] gathers several tests: comparison of Base Shear and maximum
lateral deflection, comparison of design forces, comparison of deflection and variation of base reaction. The
following conclusions were reached:

- When the design force results of corrugated web models are compared to flat web, it is discovered
that flat web is effective in resisting major axis bending moment, whereas corrugated web sections are
not effective in resisting major axis bending moment because corrugation drastically reduces major axis
bending stiffness

- To make corrugated web sections effective at resisting major axis bending moment, corrugation
characteristics such as corrugation angle should be evaluated and proportioned appropriately; otherwise,
corrugated web profiles can result in an uneconomical solution.

- Maximum minor axis bending moment is observed in corrugated models.

- Maximum shear force is observed in corrugated models.

 Comparison lateral-torsional buckling corrugated and flat web girders

Corrugated web beams are often more resistant to lateral torsional buckling than flat web beams. This
is due to the corrugated web's higher stiffness and resistance to buckling.

When a beam is exposed to a bending moment, the top and bottom flanges are subjected to tensile and
compressive stresses respectively, while the web is subjected to shear stresses. In a flat web beam, the web
is thin and has a low resistance to bending and torsion. It is therefore more likely to deform under a
combination of lateral and torsional loads.

On the other hand, corrugated web beams have additional stiffness and strength due to their section.
This improves the beam's resistance to lateral and torsional loads, decreasing the probability of buckling.

In addition, corrugated beams have a higher section modulus than flat beams of the same weight, which
makes them more material efficient.

 Conclusion

Further research is required to determine the effective length factors in order to find the best fit buckling
curve. These tests can be supplemented by numerical searches but also with a more complex statistical
evaluation. These simulations would allow us to determine the reliable buckling curve for the prediction of

32
the lateral-torsional buckling strength of trapezoidally corrugated web girders for example. For all these
reasons, the Ansys software seems like the most suitable tool.

The influences of variables such as the flange thickness, the length of the beam and material properties
are areas also open for research in order to improve the resistance to lateral-torsional buckling.

33
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36
Table des figures
Figure 1 : Scudder Falls Bridge, USA (Structurae.net) ............................................................................................ 5
Figure 2 : Web stiffener (left) and corrugated web (right) ...................................................................................... 5
Figure 3 : Cognac bridge, Charente (FRANCE) ...................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4 : Aigawa Bridge, Osaka (JAPAN) (structurae.net) ................................................................................... 6
Figure 5 : Application of corrugated web steel girders in building........................................................................ 7
Figure 6 : NailWeb beam.............................................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 7 : Zeman beam................................................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 8 : Jinggong industrialization ........................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 9 : Without connection .................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 10 : Total connection ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 11 : Cross-section classification of beams...................................................................................................10
Figure 12 : Maximum width-to-thickness ratio ......................................................................................................11
Figure 13 : Types of web ............................................................................................................................................11
Figure 14 : Comparison of shear constraint in corrugated and flat web ............................................................12
Figure 15 : Buckling coefficients for I-sections in which the web is the critical element ................................12
Figure 16 : Flexural behavior of a beam ..................................................................................................................13
Figure 17 : Lateral-torsional buckling.......................................................................................................................15
Figure 18 : Recommended values for imperfection factors for lateral torsional buckling curves ..................16
Figure 19 : Recommendation for the selection of lateral torsional buckling curve for cross-sections..........16
Figure 20 : Contribution from the web χw to shear buckling resistance ...........................................................18
Figure 21 : Shear buckling factor χw ........................................................................................................................18
Figure 22 : Type of stiffeners for the calculation of 𝑘𝜏 ........................................................................................19
Figure 23 : General vs local buckling .......................................................................................................................20
Figure 24 : Different type of buckling......................................................................................................................21
Figure 25 : Trapezoidal and sinusoidal corrugated webs ......................................................................................22
Figure 26 : Corrugation configuration and geometric notation ...........................................................................23
Figure 27 : Notation for corrugated web I-section ................................................................................................24
Figure 28 : Lateral-torsional buckling mode of typical corrugated web girders ................................................26
Figure 29 : Difference between local, interactive and global buckling ...............................................................28
Figure 30 : Notations ..................................................................................................................................................31

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Notation

𝒃𝒇 is the nominal flange width

𝝆 is the reduction factor

𝒕𝒇 is the nominal flange thickness

𝒇𝒚𝒇 is the flange yield

𝒉𝒘 is the nominal web depth

𝒕𝒘 is the web thickness

𝒇𝒚 is the yield strength (N/mm²)

E is the elastic modulus

G is the shear modulus

38