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An Investigation of the Nature

of Non-Directive Psychotherapy
a
William U. Snyder
a
Department of Psychology , Ohio State University
Published online: 04 Nov 2012.
To cite this article: William U. Snyder (1945) An Investigation of the Nature of Non-
Directive Psychotherapy, The Journal of General Psychology, 33:2, 193-223, DOI:
10.1080/00221309.1945.10544506
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1945.10544506
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The Journal of General Ps'ychology, 1945, 313, 193-223.
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF NON-DIRECTIVE

PSYCH OTHERAPY* 1
Department of Psychology, Ohio State Univ,ersity
WILLIAM u. SNYDER
A. INTRODUCTION
In Counseling and Psychotherapy, Rogers ( 5) points out basic differences

relating to the underlying purpose of non-directive therapy as contrasted
with directive. First, there is the assumption that "the client has the right
to select his own life goals even thoughthese may be at variance with the goals
that the counselor might choose for him." The directive counselor assumes
that the counselor is in a position to know the best thing for the client to
do, and to want to do, and he orients his actions around this philosophy.
Obviously it is implicit in this notion that the counselor is an authority ·or
"expert." Such a type of approach, in the writer's opinion, is illustrated in
the most extreme forms by such counseling as that of "Mr. Anthony" of
radio fame, or of Dr. George Crane in his syndicated newspaper column.
Another assumption of non-directive therapy is that the client will, if given
the opportunity, choose for himself the goal most likely to produce the truest
happiness. The desire of the therapist, therefore, is merely to create a situa-
tion in which the client is able to evaluate his goals in terms of their probable
ultimate outcomes. The non-directive therapist does not in any sense super-
impose upon his client his own standards or morals, or those of the society
he prefers. As a result the client is not forced into a position of defending
what he believes to be desirable goals and is therefore able to focus his efforts
on an unprejudiced evaluation. A third principal tenet of non-directive psy-
chotherapy is that the client should be brought by means of the counseling
situation to a position where he is able to operate independently and if pos-
sible in a reasonably short time. In other words, he is able to proceed "on
his own" in new situations as a result of having passed through the change
of attitudes produced in the counseling relationship.
*Received in the Editorial Office on January 15, 1944.

1An abstract of a dissertation presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State
University, September, 1943. The writer is deeply grateful for the criticism
and supervision of Dr. Carl R. Rogers who served as adviser in the preparation
of this study.
193
194 JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
It should be pointed out that while there are several people who have
described systems of relationship therapy, and these various systems differ
in the degree of non-directiveness which they advocate, it can probably be said
that Rogers' point of view represents the most extreme development in the
direction of the principles described. Rogers advocates the avoidance of all
techniques of persuasion, suggestion, and criticism. He limits explanation to
very restricted situations. Perhaps most important is his limiting of a sup-
portive relationship to approval and encouragement, and even this is to be

used, he feels, only in very restricted amounts at proper times. No other
psychologist has gone this far.
The idea motivating the present study was a desire to examine and raise
questions about the nature of non-directive therapy. Many of the notions
developed in the material so far published have been observations deduced
through a keen insight, and from empirical relationships. Numerous clini-
cians have been quite impressed on the basis of their experience with the
results they are able to obtain by , following non-directive principles. It is
therefore desirable that scientific techniques and mathematical checks be ap-
plied to treatment interviews in such a manner as to demonstrate whether or
not some of the proposed hypotheses are consistent with fact. Persons with
a critical point of view, including many of the non-directive counselors, are
interested in knowing whether the apparent observations are supported by
measurable data. That is to say, does the system really work in the manner
believed so far? The present study is not so much an attempt to describe
the effectiveness of non-directive therapy, but more an effort to show how
non-directive methods produce the change in attitudes that is observed. Some
of the questions that might be asked are ( 1) how can such unstructured
material as a psychotherapeutic interview be made into measurable data,
(2) are the people who think they are using non-directive methods really
doing so, ( 3) are the advocates of non-directive therapy correct in assuming
that it is their non-directive techniques which produce the responses that
indicate a therapeutic process, or whether it is their more directive techniques,
( 4) does the .client really show insight in the process of changing attitudes,
( 5) if the counselor is recognizing feelings, as he believes he is, what are those
feelings, ( 6) do the feelings themselves change during the treatment process
and are there any differences in the objects toward which they are directed,
( 7) is there a difference in the nature of the feelings which correlate with
certain types of content material, ( 8) is there a difference in the nature of
the feelings which are sequels of certain counselor statements, (9) what is
the client's attitude toward the counselor during and after the treatment
WILLIAM U. SNYDER 195
process, (10) what is the client's attitude toward the treatment process dur-
ing its progress and after it is completed, ( 11) does the frequency of various
types of counselor or of client statements vary throughout the treatment
process in any clearly recognizable patterns, (12) does the discussion of
plans follow, as is proposed, the understanding of and insight into the
problem?
Other investigators have made analyses which perhaps in part lead up to
the questions just asked. Porter ( 4) considered non-directive counseling
in an analytical study and raised numerous significant questions. 2 He failed,

however, to consider the client's part of the interview. Porter pointed out
that counselor's profile patterns can be demonstrated. But whether or not
this is a personal difference or the result of a system of counseling is not
clearly indicated. Royer ( 6) attempted to describe characteristic patterns
of non-directive counseling, and constructed scoring devices for both coun-
selor and client statements. She also made an effort to show pattern through-
out the interview series by comparing the first half of the treatment with
the second half. However, this was done for three cases which were treated
collectively. Royer demonstrated a fairly marked comparability between the
work of three different counselors. Helen Sargent, in an unpublished study,
first attempted the idea of studying sequels. Based on only three carefully
recorded interviews, she demonstrated by statistical devices that client insight
seems to increase throughout the treatment process and that counselors do
more clarifying of feeling at the end of the interview than at the beginning,
and a great deal less direct questioning. Sargent was the first person to
make a statistical treatment of the type of client response which follows a
counselor's statement. A weakness in Sargent's work, aside from the small
amount of material studied, is that no proof is offered of the reliability of
classifications of ideas, and the methods of determining the length of the
specific idea unit is not too adequate.
In summary, it may be said that there are numerous questions which should
be demonstrated in order to validate the concepts employed in non-directive
counseling. Studies have been made which have raised related questions, and
a few investigators have attempted to answer some of these. As a whole,
however, they tend only to point the direction in which investigation should
be made and to leave the field open for more complete treatment of the prob-
lems described .
2 A minor criticism of Porter's work is that it is based on raw scores without such
further devices of comparison as percentages or chi-squares. The advantage of the

latter type of score is that it is sensitive to inequalities between various partially
comparal:>le units of data.
B. METHOD
The material to be analyzed in the present study is based on the records

of therapeutic interviews with six persons. The work of four different
counselors is included.
It should be indicated that the recording process consists of two types:
first, those protocols which are based on the note-taking of the counselor fol-
lowed by his immediate recall and transcription from notes; second, those
interviews which are transcribed from electrically made phonograph records

and consist of a verbatim record of the entire interview, or are transcribed
from stenographic dictation. The method of making phonographic recordings
is described by Covner ( 1). In no case was the counselee aware that phono-
graphic recordings were being made. In the case of the stenographically re-
corded interviews the counselee was unaware that he was being recorded,
because the stenographer was seated in a different room from that in which
the interview took place, and listened to the interview by means of a public
address system operating through a concealed microphone, placed in a lamp
in front of the counselee.
Although interviews were phonographically recorded, in most of the cases
the counselors consistently made careful notes during the interview. There-
fore, in principle at least, it may be assumed that the counselees were aware
that records were being made of the interview.
In the choice of material to be analyzed for this study the following
principles were observed. First, an attempt was made to select the work of
reasonably experienced counselors only, and these counselors were persons
who were recognized as making a consistent effort to use a non-directive
type of counseling as nearly as possible corresponding with that described by
Rogers. Second, only cases which, in the judgment of the writer, exhibited
a thoroughly adequate use of this non-directive method were included.
Third, five of the cases were considered, a priori, to have been successful in
a therapeutic sense, i.e., to have changed the attitudes of the counselee in
such a manner that his behavior was observably less disorganized and more
integrated. In the 6th case no such successful treatment was predicated; in
fact, the treatment was considered to have been unsuccessful in bringing
about a change.
Four of the cases are analyzed completely. In one case 17 interviews
occurred, but only the first 10 are analyzed. The last seven interviews of
this case were not analyzed because in the opinion of three experienced coun-
selors treatment was believed to have been successful by the end of the tenth
interview. In one case there were a total of 21 interviews, of which only
13 were analyzed for this study. The other eight interviews were excluded
from analysis in order to keep the material somewhat less cumbersome. The
basis on which the 13 interviews were selected was that all initial and closing
interviews were included. (Treatment was dropped for vacation after the
seventeenth interview, but resumed five weeks later.) Also, all steno-
graphically recorded interviews were analyzed. In addition, wherever there
was a marked gap several interviews were selected at random so as to give a
rather smooth cross-section of the entire case. In no situation were more
than two consecutive interviews omitted.

In all there were 48 intervi~ws analyzed. Of this number 30 were made
from phonographic recordings and from stenographic records. In five cases
at least one interview was recorded by one or the other of these methods.
In three cases the entire material is phonographically recorded. The ques-
tion may be raised as to the legitimacy of using mechanically recorded
material and subjectively recorded protocols in the same study. Where
differences occur as a result of this technique, they will be identified in the
discussion of results. It has been observed, however, that with surprising
frequency there are no important inadequacies of the note-taking method of
recording interviews where such records are made from full notes immediately
transcribed. Covner ( 3) has shown that approximately 80 per cent of the
interview material can be recorded in this manner by experienced counselors,
and that the material which is unrecorded consists usually of minor details
unrelated to the problem which the client has presented.
In order to make some sort of measurable data out of the material recorded'
in the interviews, it was necessary to devise a scheme of categories into which
the various statements might be classified. In the use of any subjective
material such analysis is requisite. An example would be the Rorschach
Ink Blot Test in which the relatively unstructured nature of the situation
allows the client a modified freedom of response. In the present study the
material is even less structured or limited in nature than would be true of
the Rorschach Test. The client is in a free situation where he may say
anything at all that he chooses. Previous attempts to objectify such sub-
jective material have been made by Porter, Covner, Rogers, Royer, Sargent,
and others, in the order mentioned. The method used in each of these cases
was that of constructing a system of categories into which the specific state-
ment could be classified by a trained or untrained classifier. None of the
methods used was considered entirely satisfactory for the present investiga-
tion, and a new one resembling in nature some of the others but considerably
modified was finally devised.
The classifications of counselor statements used in this study are pre-

sented in Table 1. In making this analysis, it appeared that the statements
of counselors could usually be observed to break down into one of 16 types,
classified with reference to the subject matter being discussed. The small
percentage of counselor statements not so classifiable (less than one per
cent) could be labeled unclassifiable, XUN. Further observation of the
heading of the categories suggested a second hierarchical grouping of cate-
gories. The categories eventually used for counselor statements are listed
below, together with a code mark (the letter X followed by two other let-
ters) and a brief definition of the heading. The groupings are also indicated.
In the case of statements made by the client or counselee, it was found
that a two-dimensional type of significance seemed to exist. First, there was
a content significance, or what one might call a subject-matter heading.
Second, it was noted that in the case of many statements intense feeling was
either explicit or clearly inferred. For example in a statement like, "[ don't
like that sort of behavior" a client is stating a problem and is expressing
also a negative feeling with reference to external objects. It was decided,
TABLE 1
DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELOR CATEGORIES
LEAD-TAKING CATEGORIES (those which seem to determine the direction of the inter-
view; which indicate what the client should be talking about).
XCS--Structuring. Remarks which define the counseling situation. Remarks
indicating the purposes the interview may be expected to accomplish, or the
responsibi1ities of both individuals; i.e., telling "what we can do here."
Also includes remarks setting the time · and limits of the interview, but not
those relating to the end of the interview; would include "You can have
just an hour," but wouldn't include "I see you've come to the end of the
hour."
XFT-Forcing client to choose and develop topic. Includes all efforts of the
counselor to reject responsibility for the direction of the interview. For
example: "What shall we talk about today?" or " Well, how do you feel
about it?"
XDC-Directive questions; sp ecific types of questions . Asking an outright
question which requires the giving of a factual answer. It does not include
interrogative statements which are merely intended to redefine, clarify, or
redescribe a feeling. It would include "What do you think of tliat ?"
"How old are you?" "Do they resent the fact that you are not aggressively
going out after jobs?" It would not include "And you aren't too happy
about it?" or "It's rather unpleasant for you, is that right?," particularly
when such questions follow somewhat similar statements.
XND-Non-directive leads and qu estions. Statements which encourage the client
to state the problem further. T ·his excludes leads that would greatly limit
the cjient in what he could bring out about the problem or his feelings about
it. Lt would include "Tell me · more about it," or "Would you like to tell
me how you feel about it?" or "How are you today?'• (asked in a general
sense). In general this type of lead is one that encourages a statement
without limiting the nature of the response except in a very general way,
as in "Tell me more about it."
TABLE 1 (continued)
NON-DIRECTIVE RESPONSE-TO-FEELING CATEGORIES (those which seem to attempt to re-

state a feeling that the client has expressed, but not to interpret or to offer
advice, criticism, or suggestions).
XSA-Simple acceptance. "Yes," "M-hm," "I see," "That's right" (if not
answering question) or similar responses. Must not imply approval or
criticism.
XRC-Restatement of content or problem. A simple repeating of what the
client has said without any offort to organize, clarify, or interpret it, or any
effort to show that the counselor is appreciating the feeling of the client's
statement by understanding it. The wording need not be identical with

that of the client.
XCF-Clarification or recognition of feeling. A statement by the counselor
which puts the client's feeling or affective tone in· somewhat clearer or more
recognizable form. "It makes you feel very much annoyed," "You love your
mother but you resent her telling you what to do," "I think sometimes you
wish you'd never been born."
SEMI-DIRECTIVE RESPONSE-TO-FEELING CATEGORY. (Those responses which are interpre-

tive in character.)
XIT-Interpretation. Responses in which the counselor points out patterns and
relationships in the material presented. This category is always used when
causation is implied or indicated. "You do this .because . . . " If the coun-
selor attempts even vaguely to say "why" the client does or feels something.
it is considered interpretation. "Perhaps you are revealing feelings of
inferiority." "When people feel frustrated they often act the way you
do." "There's your problem."
DIRECTIVE COUNSELING CATEGORIES (categories of responses which imply a relationship

in which the counselor attempts to change the immediate ideas of the client
or to influence his attitude toward them).
X A E-A iproval and encouragem,ent. "That's fine." "You've covered a lot of
ground today." "You bet!" Any statement which lends emotional support
or approval to the client's insecurity.
XIX-Giving information or explanation. Answers to any questions about the
nature of psychology or any other informational material; anything which
is recognized as a generally established fact; any personal information
about the counselor.
XCA~roposing, client activity. Any statements which imply that the client
should take any sort of action.
XPS-Persuasion. Attempts to convince the client that he should accept the
counselor's point of view.. "Don't you think it would be better that way,
now?"
XDC-Disapproval and criticism. "You need to get hold of yourself.''
MINOR CATEGORIES. (Those responses which do not seem to be related to the principle
problem of the client. )
XEC-Ending of th,e contact. Any responses dealing with the bringing to a
close of the contact, or with the setting of a time for a future contact.
XES-Ending of the series. Responses relating to the bringing to a close of the
series of interviews, or to the beginning of the clie'nt's feeling that he
does not need further contact.
XFD-Friendly discussion. Material unrelated to the client's problem, and
serving only the purpose of establishing good rapport between client and
counselor.
XUN-Unclassifiable. Any response which cannot be classified in one of the
above categories.
therefore, that a two-dimensional type ·of classification was necessary for

many of the counselee responses. In the first dimension, that of the content
of the material, 11 categories and an "unclassifiable" heading were found
desirable. A secondary type of grouping was also observed here in that some
type of responses seemed more closely related to each other than others did.
This secondary type of relationship is indicated in the description of cate-
gories of counselees' responses which are grouped in four main headings
in the description which follows. In the case of the second or "emotions"

dimension, nine categories were decided upon for this study. These are the
possible inter-relationships of positive, negative, and ambivalent attitudes to-
wards the self, the counselor, or toward external objects or persons. It
should be clearly indicated that while all counselees' statements were as-
sumed to possess content significance, only a part of them contained feeling
believed to be measurable. Therefore counselee statements could be classified
either in the one dimension or in both dimensions.
Definitions of the counselee categories together with code identifications
(the letter Y followed by two other letters) are given in Table 2.
TABLE 2
DEFINITIONS OF CLIENT CONTENT CATEGORIES
PROBLEM CATEGORY (the category which includes the client's definition of description
of his problems).
YSP-Any statements of th,e problem or the symptoms. This includes accounts
of incidents which illustrate the problem in the client's opinion. "I would
term it a blocking which has manifestations in several fields."
SIMPLE RESPONSE CATEGORIES (responses which are not statements of a problem under-
standing or insight, or specific minor types of statements).
Y A 1-A sking for advice or infonmation. Any attempts to obtain advice or
information, or to place the responsibilities for solution of the problem on
the counselor.
Y AQ-Answer to a question. Any simple answer to a direct question (XDQ)
which gives information but does not indicate feeling on the part of the
client. This category does not include acceptance of a counselor's inter-
pretation.
Y AC-Simple acceptance or acquiescence to a clarification of feeling. "Yes,"
"M-hm," "You bet," "That's right!"
YRS-Rejection of a clarification or interpretation. "No, not exactly," "Well,
I don't think it's like that," "I'm not sure."
UNDERSTANDING OR ACTION-TAKING CATEGORIES (those which show insight into the
courses or remedies of the problem; those which discuss plans that may be
followed).
YUI-Understanding or insight. Under this category fall any expressions indi-
cating that the client has been able to see patterns and relationships in the
material he has presented in the interview. Statements 'about the "why"
of his behavior which indicate a logical and reasoned explanation rather
than a rationalization. "Maybe that thing of being so important went to
my head." "Maybe having everybody waiting on me that way made me
so spoiled that I haven't been able to get along since without that attention."
TABLE 2 (continued)
Y DP-Discussion of plans, decisions, possible outcomes of plans. This cate-

gory is used in referring to plans and decisions which may have resulted
from the counseling. Discussion of past plans are not included. Future
goals are included, when t·hey appear to have resulted from the counseling.
"I'm gonna' go home and lay this thing out before her, and from now on
I'm gonna' stop hidin' those little things I don't want people to know about
for fear they won't have a good opinion of me ." <' I could get a job, I
think ."
MINOR CATEGORIES (those responses which do not seem to be related to the principal
problem of the client).
YEC-Ending of the contact. Any response dealing with the bringing to a close
of the contact, or with the setting of a time for a future conact.
YES-Ending of the series. Responses relating to the bringing to a close of
the series of interviews or to the beginning of the client's feeling that he
does not need further counseling.
YNR-Not related to the problem. Any material which does not seem to be a
basic part of the problem and yet is not considered friendly discussion or
any other type of material listed above. Expressions of facts of an un-
emotional character. This includes statements about self or others, so long
as no feelings or emotions seem to be expressed. "Of course, some work's
awful monotonous-but the higher up you go, the more interesting it be-
comes." "I like flowers; I wouldn't mind making a garden next spring."
FYD-Friendly discussion. Material unrelated to the client's oroblem an d serv-
ing only the purpose of establishing friendly relationships between client
and counselor.
YUN-Unclassifiable. Any response that cannot be classified in one of the above
categories.
Definitions of Client Feeling Categories
POSITIVE ATTITUDES.
PAS-Positive attitude toward the self; favorable or defensive.
PAC-Positive attitude toward the counselor or counseling situation.
PAD-Positive attitude toward other persons or situations.
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES.
NAS-Negative attitude toward the self; unfavorable or critical.
NAG-Negative attitude toward the _counselor or counseling situation.
NAO-Negative attitude toward the other persons or situations.
AMBIVALENT ATTITUDES.
AMS-Ambivalent attitude toward the self.
AMC-Ambivalent attitude toward the counselor or counseling situation.
AMO-Ambivalent attitude toward other persons or situations.
The classification of responses for this study was performed by the writer.
Altogether slightly less than 10,000 responses 0 were classified. The task
was felt to be too large to request the cooperation of other classifiers. For
purposes of reliability study, rechecks were made by the classifier himself
and another person. A discussion of this recheck occurs later.
One very significant question that has faced every person who has at-
tempted to o?jectify spoken or subjective statements has been the question
of determining the boundaries of the units of material; that is to say, deter-
mining the boundaries of "ideas." Covner attempted to break each speech
into "ideas" which he defined as a clearly indicated change in the subject

matter or attitude of the client's thinking. Royer and Sargent avoided this
problem by considering each section of material between two counselor state-
ments as a single idea. They were faced with the problem, however, that
at times this was observably not a true recognition of what was happening,
and they used the arbitrary method of breaking the passage into two or at
times three units. This break was made only rather occasionally, and then
with the mutual agreement of two classifiers. For the present study it was
felt that Covner's attempt to, classify ideas was preferable to the other method.
Covner checked the reliability of the breakdown of ideas and determined
that there was a rather high consistency in the way these ideas could be
differentiated. The present writer felt that to interject the question of
i·eliability of breakdown into this material would complicate the problems
under study. It was therefore decided that the breaks between ideas
should be arbitrarily decided by the classifier, and that the study would
not attempt to predict results determined from the unmodified data, but
only results based on the breakdown of ideas which was made.
C. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Two methods were used to show the reliability of the present study. The
first was a recheck by the classifier himself in which he attempted to rescore
certain interviews without recall of previously made classifications. Four
of the interviews were rescored after an interval of more than a month,
during which time numerous other interviews had been scored. Two of the
interviews chosen for rescoring were phonographically recorded ones, and
two were interviews recorded from the counselor's notes. Precautions were
taken to avoid initial or terminal interviews on the basis of the assumption
that such interviews might tend to be more specialized in character and
therefore more clearly classifiable with regard to any particular category.
The general conclusion which may be made is that the classifier was able
to demonstrate a reliability ranging from .76 to .87 using the test-retest
method. Corresponding chance expectation scores ranged from .06 to .33.
It can therefore be said that "a high degree of reliability existed in the scoring
of items in so far as they were checked by the test-retest method.
In order to test further the reliability of scoring, a second classifier was
asked to recheck four other interviews different from the ones rechecked by
the principal classifier. For this purpose the writer selected an individual
who had not previously had experience in the classifying of psychotherapeutic
mterviews. The second classifier was given the definitions of the categories
which appear in the earlier part of this paper and was allowed to read
through two of the interviews classified by the principle classifier and to
study the classifications made. He then proceeded to make classifications
of four interviews selected as typical. The classifier was able to match the
scores of the first classifier with reliabilities ranging from .52 to .78. These
are also to be compared to pure-chance expectations ranging from .06 to
.33. Consequently it may be said that the second classifier was able to
match the scores of the first classifier with a reliability at least equivalent to
that found in the average standardized test." In view of the fact that the
second classifier was so weakly indoctrinated in the methods w hich the first
classifier was using, it is perhaps remarkable that he was able to achieve as
similar s~K>ring as occurred.
In referring to the validity of a study, one is concerned with the question
of whether a measurement is really what it is purported to be. That is to
say a test or a measure may be highly reliable and yet invalid. It would
be difficult to show any way in which validity can be demonstrated for the
sort of material here described, other than in the previously mentioned method
of reliability check. The writer believes the fact that the second classifier
was working on the basis of a priori definitions produces an entirely different
situation from that in which a test is readministered to a subject. Such a
definitional situation is, we believe, identical with a validity hypothesis, i.e.,
validity is in the writer's opinion somewhat a question of definition or of
semantics. Studies of subjective data such as that observed in the Rorschach
Ink Blot Test or the Murray Thematic Apperception Test have been, as
one could expect, quite weak in any effort to establish validity in the tradi-
tional psychological sense. Perhaps the most acceptable method of indicating
validity has been that of the "independent psychiatric diagnosis." The writer
contends that the same kind of validity exists in the present study because
of the fact that the rechecking was made by a person who was believed to be
untrained in the method of classification used in this study, and who was
assumed to be in a position of objective disinterest in the outcome of the study.
D. RESULTS
The results obtained in this study we~e · collected into tables of two kinds.
The first type of table gave the total frequencies of each type or category
of counselor and client responses. The client responses were subclassified
with regard to the presence or absence of an implied "feeling." In the case
of a feeling being indicated, its character (positive, negative, or ambivalent)
and its object (self, counselor, other situations or persons ) are designated.
In the second type of tables were shown the breakdown of types of client
responses which follow the various counselor statements, and the total fre-
quencies of each of such potential sequels were indicated. There was some
complication in the matter of determining what constituted a "sequel" re-
sponse. Sargent, who was the first person to attempt to analyze the sequel
relationship, was not greatly concerned with this problem because of the
tact that in most cases all the material between two counselor statements was
treated as a single client respon~e, and all of the material between two client
responses was usually treated as a single counselor statement. Therefore
she was able to indicate single client responses as being sequel to a single
counselor statement. It is noteworthy, however, that a very high per-
centage of her client responses were classified Y A C, or "acceptance." Sar-
gent called any response beginning with the word "yes" a Y A C response.
In the opinion of the present writer this technique was not advisable. The
statement "yes" is frequently observed to be followed by a rejection of what
the counselor has said, i.e., a "yes, but." Or in many cases it is followed by
material clearly descriptive of the symptoms, or showing insight or planning.
The present writer therefore classified ideas on the basis of much smaller
units. As a result two or three, and sometimes as many as 10, client ideas
would follow two or three or even more counselor ideas. To ignore all but
the first of such client ideas would be a misrepresentation of the probable
situation that actually occurred. By the same token, to assume that all the
ideas which occurred between two counselor statements followed only the
last idea previously expressed by the counselor, would not seem to be justi-
fied by common sense. After considerable thought, it was decided to call
each idea between two counselor statements a sequel to every idea expressed
in the previous counselor statement. While such a procedure may not have
been justified in every case, it seemed a much more justifiable method of
measuring sequels than any of the possible alternates. As a result of this
method more sequels were indicated than actual items. It was felt, however,
that they were logically measured only in the way chosen.
In order to give meanings to the results obtained, statistical treatment of
the data in such a manner as to indicate mathematical probabilities was
desirable. The statistic selected for this purpose was the chi-square. Ra-
tionale for this selection was as follows: chi-square is a weighted value which
is obtained from raw scores but which has the characteristic of sensitivity to
all other raw scores present in a given set of data. In correlation procedure
only two comparable sets of data may be compared, but with a chi-square
technique numerous groups may be compared simultaneously and the inter-
WILLIA!\1 U. SNYDER 205
relationships of each datum with all the others is indicated. Chi-square·

comparisons obtained frequencies with a chance-hypothesis expectation deter-
mined on the basis of a "mathematical equilibrium" of all the compared
units. It was felt that this method of indicating significant deviations from
chance expectancy was the only practicable one for this study.
In order to give the reader an idea of the sort of tables which occur, two
sample chi-square tables have been selected and are presented in Tables
3 and 4. Table 3 gives the chi-squares of the scores representing the distri-
bution of the counselor statements with regard to each interview and to the
main groups of counselor categories in the case of Bryan. The main groups
of counselor categories are lead-taking categories, non-directive statements,
interpretations (XIT), directive statements (including approval and en-
couragement), and minor insignificant statements. Observing Table 3 the
:eader will note that there were high positive chi-squares for lead taking
categories in the first and second interviews followed by a series of fairly
low negative chi-squares. This is interpreted as indicating that there is a
significant amount of lead-taking on the part of the counselor in the first
part of the counseling process. With regard to the non-directive statements
observation of the chi-squares show that there is a slight tendency for this
type of response to predominate in the first interview, although it is not very
marked. In the last interview there is a similar tendency for a lack of non-
directive responses. Similarly interpretation is found to be least present at
the beginning of treatment and most present about the middle of the process.
For this case directive leads (including approval and encouragement) are
markedly lacking in the first interview and somewhat lacking in the sixth.
In the last two interviews there is a marked prominence of this sort of state-
ment. (Examination of procedures shows the prominence to be the result
of approval and encouragement. A break-down of this category into sub-
categories reveals the same lack). In regard to minor statements of the
counselor there are no indications of the significant predominance of this sort
except in the last interview, during which a good deal of unrelated con-
versation took place.
The total chi-square for the entire table was 70.69, which indicates that
the distribution of scores in this table is very significantly different from
a chance distribution. One must interpret the individual chi-squares and also
their positive or negative character in order to know the specific examples of
non-chance frequencies. Similar chi-square tables were made up for each of
the six cases with regard to 11 different sorts of comparisons. Some of the
tables were considerably larger than Table 3. It can be said, however, that
the conclusions in this study are based on these 66 tables of chi-squares,

which are available in the dissertation on which this article is based.
A somewhat different table is also presented for illustrative purposes.
Table 4 -gives the scores representing the disposition of the client' < responses
that tend to follow certain counselor statements. The client categories are
statements of the problem (YSP), simple statements unrelated to the prob-
lem, understanding and insight or discussion of plans (YUI-YDP), and
minor statements. The counselor categories are the ones listed above. The
examination of Table 4 shows that statement of the problem most frequently

follows lead taking statements by the counselor for this case ( C.C.) seldom
follows directive statements, and very seldom follows minor statements. Sim-
ple statements by the client frequently follow interpretations and seldom
follow directive or minor statements by the counselor. Understanding
and insight most significantly follows the directive statements bv the coun-
selor (approval and encouragement). Minor irrelevant statements by the
client follow the same type of statement by the counselor with an amazingly
high frequency. To put this last observation in other words one might say
that small talk causes small talk.
Some of the points brought out in the analysis of data are rather specific
and detailed. It is desirable that something in the nature of deductions or
principles be determined. For purposes of convenience this material will be
treated under subheading referring to each specific problem under con-
sideration.
1. Changes in the Frequencies of the Various Types of Counselor Statements

Throughout the Series of Interviews
In general, this point is rather adequately covered in Figure 1, a chart
which indicates the percentage of the composite counselor statements that
comprised different categories of statements. Since there were different num-
bers of interviews in all but two of the series, a scheme had to be determined
which would enable the various treatments to be adjusted to a similar
scale. It was also felt that a combining of all cases into one curve should
be more meaningful than a chart or table illustrating the different curves
separately presented. A scheme was worked out by which the interview series
of various lengths could be scaled to the same graph, and charts were made
up for each of the significant types of counselor categories. Each chart had
six lines on it, each representing the per cent of the total number of responses
for each interview for a specific case. The number of interviews for each
case was equally spaced across a distance common to all cases. These charts
were drawn on fine-grade cross-coordinate paper, and accuracy was assured

to the degree of one-half of one per cent. After a chart was completed the
horizontal or time axis was equally dissected into deciles of the treatment
span. It was then possible to determine an average on each decile line, of
the six points at which individual case lines crossed the decile. The average
or composite curve thus determined was plotted on a separate chart to-
gether with similarly obtained composite curves for each of the significant
types of categories. Figure 1 gives the previously described composite curves

for the counselor's statements. It shows that half of the counselor state-
ments fit into the category of clarification of feeli.ng. Such statements seem
fairly consistent in their tendency to diminish throughout the interview
series, starting out at about 44 per cent of the statements, averagirig 35 per
cent for most of the series, and dropping to 27 per cent in the last decile of
treatment. The approximate percentages of this curve closely parallel those
of the client's statement of the problem shown in a later figure (Figure 2).
Figure 1 also suggests that "counselor structuring," "persuasion," "dis-
approval and criticism," "approval and encouragement," and "non-directive
leads" comprise relatively minor parts in the treatment process, each one
ahy·ays being less than 10 per cent of the total number of responses at any
given period of treatment. "Counselor structuring" and "non-directive" leads
start out at their highest level and diminish rather consistently approximately
to the zero point by the last interview. In the opposite direction are the
trends of "approval and encouragement" and "persuasion and disapproval."
"Approval" rises from zero to 10 per cent with slight fluctuations. "Dis-
approval" rises consistently from zero to 5 per cent.
"Simple acceptance" as studied for the three completely phonographically
recorded cases comprises 25 per cent of the statements at the beginning of
the treatment, 33 per cent during the middle of the treatment, and 26 per
cent at the end of the treatment.
2. Trends in the Various Types of Client Responses Throughout the Series

of Interviews
The results relating to this point are nicely summarized in Figure 2, which
gives a composite picture of the counselee statements for the six cases, pre-
pared in a manner similar to Figure 1. Two significant trends are out-
standing. Study of Figure 2 shows that "client statements of the problem"
comprise 50 per cent of the responses in the earliest interview, 30 per cent
during most of the interviews, and 18 per cent in the last. "Understanding
and insight," on the other hand, begin in fairly small amounts at 12 per
50
- - XCF Clarification T - T XPS-XDC Persuasion,
of Client's Disapproval and
Feelings Criticism
XSA Simple Accept- ---XND Non-Directive
45 1-----+------1 ance (Based Leads by the
on 3 cases.) Counselor
------- xes Structurinp; --------- .XAE Approval and
of Intervi~w Encouragement
by Counselor b Counselor
~/~~(, ____ ~~
530 ~----~------~---/-_/~~----~----~~--~~--~~,-,----~~"'~~
~ t.// ', """

~
8.25 _/
/ '1----
0)
<J)
--- 7
0:::
"-<
0
s.,20
(I)
,0
s
:z;
.-;15
..,
al
0
E-<
"-'
0 10
+'
c
<J)
'
<)
'-,
~
Q) ~-- - ~"....
"" 5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10
Decile of Treatment Span
FIGURE 1
FIGURE SHOWING THE AVERAGE PERCENTAGES OF VARIOUS COUNSELOR STATEMENTS
TREATED COLLECTIVELY FOR THE SIX CASES, RECORDED AT EACH DECILE
OF THE TREATMENT PROCESS
50 __ YS Pstat e ment of
Problem
45
1\ ---YUI Undrstndng &.
Instght --
-······YDPDi s cuss ion
and Planning
\\ +-+YRS Rejecting an
Interpretatn
- ----Y AI ~~~a~~ ·,n~,
40
'\
1l
..., 3o
\ v--- ...
~ ........-
'~ /
"" , I
I
I
"" ,"" /
"' I\;I
O'J
Q) 25
I " '
O'J
/ ',+---- t-----
'\
c
0
0. I
O'J
Q)
I
..: 20
<H
0 I
/ \
1-. I
Q)
I
~15 I
z I
.....
.,"'
~10
<H
.. ..
0
- -- - -- - -· ...... .. .......--
.., -- .....................
- - -- -- - -- ~ ..__
-
1--- -- - - ·- ·-· - ·
c + + - ~
Q) 5
0
1-.
II)
X
/
X __..
........ _ ;..
... - -+:-· ~-~*-_:."
....................
- .... -....__ -~-
~ ~-- -- - --
-;--~
- + - .......
"' . ..................... ...................... ............... ........
.................. ..
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
De cil e of Treatment Span
F I GURE 2
FIGURE SHOWING AVERAGE P ERCENTAGES OF VARIOUS CLIENT RESPONSES TREATED COLLEC-
TIVELY FOR THE SIX CASES, AND R ECORDED AT EACH DECILE
OF THE ENTIRE TREATMENT PROCESS
cent and rise to 28 per cent by the third decile of the treatment span.
From this point there is minor fluctuation below 28 per cent, but a return
to that level by the final interview. Both of the trends indicated appear to
be quite consistent.
There is an interesting trend in the rise of "discussion of plans" from
zero at the beginning of treatment to 12 Yz per cent in the last interview.
This is a very consistent trend. "Rejection of the counselor's statement"
and "asking for information" occur in fairly regular amounts at 5 and 3

per cent respectively throughout the treatment span.
3. Tendencies for Certain Types of Client Responses to Follow Certain

Types of Counselor Statements
In all cases there was a significant difference in the tendency for certain
responses to follow certain types of counselor statements. These differences
were revealed by the magnitude of the chi-squares obtained. Client's state-
ments of the problem quite clearly tend especially to follow counselor's non-
directive leads. They do not very often follow simple acceptance on the
part of the counselor, and are not very often produced bv efforts of the
counselor to give structure to the counseling situation. Statements of the
problem are seldorp brought about by direct questions, which are more fre-
quently responded to with asking for information or a rejection of what
the counselor .has said. A simple restatement of what the client has said
may tend to produce further statements about his problem, but not to the
extent that non-directive leads produce that · result. Clarification of feeling
tends to produce some statement of the problem, but not apparently much
more than it tends to produce any other types of client responses, excluding
rejection. Interpretation by the counselor does not bring about a statement
of the problem, but is most prone to cause rejection. Approval and encour-
agement usually produced statement of the problem, although in two cases
they tended m~re to produce discussion of plans. Very little persuasion or
disapproval and criticism seems to be used by non-directive counselors, but
what does occur is transferred by the client to the problem situation; that is,
he usually states symptoms and problems when he is criticized or put under
any sort of duress.
The most frequent cause of a client's asking for information is the coun-
selor's effort to structure the counseling situation. Sometimes, however, it
follows the tendency of the counselor to ask questions. Disapproval and per-
suasion brought on, in one case, a tendency to ask for information.
The client shows a marked tendency to accept clarifications of feelings.
He shows a marked tendency to reject persuasion or disapproval and criticism

in most cases. Clients also reject direct questions and counselor's structuring
of the situation to some extent. As would be expected, rejections do not
follow clarifications of feeling. In other words the tendencies to accept
statements are brought about by the opposite situation from those which
produce the tendencies to reject them.
Understanding and insight follow simple acceptance by the counselor
more frequently than anything else. They also follow approval and en-
couragement quite consistently. There is a fairly marked tendency for them
not to follow clarification of feeling. It would seem that perhaps clarification
of feeling produces some statement of the problem and a fair amount of all
types of responses (except rejection), but perhaps not too much understanding
and insight. It so consistently produces acceptance by the client and to such
a marked degree that one wonders if the chi-squares are not somewhat over-
balanced by this striking relationship. That is to say, it is possible that
becau ·e acceptance follows clarification of feeling so frequently, its relation-
snip to other categories is not as markedly positive as it might be. It was
noted in Figures 1 and 2 that the curve representing the frequency of
clarifications of feelings during the treatment process is approximately similar
to the curve representing the statement of the problem by the client. It
seems entirely probable that clarification of feelings produces acceptance of
TABLE 3
A TABLE OF CHI-SQUARES WHICH INDICATE THE PROBABILLTY THAT A GIVEN DISTRI-
BUTION OF SCORES Js SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE THEORETICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES THAT WOULD BE OBTAINED ON
THE HYPOTHESIS OF CHANCE
Case: Bryan. Chi-squares of the scores representing the distribution of the coun-
selor statements with regard to each interview and to the main groups of counselor
categories.
Interview Main groups of counselor categories
number Leads Non-direct XIT Directive Minor
1 +8.17 +2.58 -4.64 -6.63 -0.64
2 +2.41 ~0.52 +o.o1 +o.2o +0.16
3 0.00 +0.73 -0.75 -0.72 -0.07
4 -1.11 +o.D3 +2.75 +0.94 -2.94
5 -1.44 -0.01 +0.44 -0.16 +1.52
6 -0.40 +o.n +0.45 -3.94 0.00
7 -1.10 -1.60 +0.62 +8.11 -0.62
8 -0.69 -2.36 -0.39 +4.03 +5.89
Total chi-square = 70.69.
Degrees of freedom = 28.
For a P (chance probability) of .01, X' must be 48.28.
Therefore Pm 2 is less than .01.
TABLE 4
A TABLE OF CHI-SQUARES WHICH INDICATE THE PROBABILITY THAT A GIVEN DISTRI-
BUTION OF SCORES Is SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THE THEORETICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES THAT WouLD BE O BTAINED ON
THE HYPOTHESIS OF CHANCE
Case: C.C. Chi-squares of the scores representing the distribution of the client
responses that tend to follow certain counselor statements, grouped in main groupings
in both cases.
Counselor Client {grouped) categories (sequels)
Categories
grouped YSP Simple YU/-YDP Minor
Leads + 2.33 -0 .71 0.00 1.83
Non-directive + 0.24 +0.41 +0.03 - 3.99
XIT + 0.08 +4.64 -3.14 - 0.83
Directive - 3.86 -3.32 +9 .69 + 1.60
Minor -10.65 -5.51 -5.36 +147.35
Total chi-square = 205.57.
Degrees of freedom = 12.
For a P (chance probability) of .01, X' must be 26.22.
Therefore P x' is Infinitely small.
the counselor by the client and that it is this acceptance which assures the
client that he is in a free or permissive situation where he can do his think-
ing without restraint and without fear of criticism. Concurrent with this
feeling of acceptance it appears that non-directive leads on the part of the
counselor bring out statements of the problem by the client. When, then,
he reaches a slight degree of insight into the nature of his problems, the
counselor would seem to shift from an attempt to clarify the feelings to a use
of simple acceptance. This use of simple acceptance seems to result in deeper
insight and eventually in constructive planning, which comprises the change
of attitude we call therapy. Occasionally it is fortified by mildly used
approval and encouragement. In one case persuasion without use of dis-
approval was somewhat helpful.
4. Tendency for Certain Types of Client Responses to Be More Associated

with Feeling Than Other Types of Responses Are
The data obtained in this study demonstrate beyond any doubt that the
real feelings of a client are associated with his statement of the problem, his
understanding and insight, and his discussion of plans. The attitude related
to the statement of the problem are negative, while those related to under-
standing and insight and discussion of plans are ambivalent or positive.
Some feelings are associated with simple responses (asking for information,
answering questions, acceptance and rejection of the counselor's statements),
but the feelings here are quite noticeably ambivalent in character. As would
be expected there IS practically no feeling associated with the material
which is unrelated to the main problem.
5. The Tendency for the Affective Tone of Feelings to Change Throughout

the Interview Series
Data from this study indicates a marked predominance of negative atti-
tudes in the first few interviews with a significant shift toward positive
attitudes as treatment proceeds. Sometimes there is a noticeable relapse after
the first insight seems to have been reached and attitudes become negative
again during the period when the client is making his choice about the "way
of life" he wants to accept. Attitudes toward the counselor are usually
rather faintly rejecting at first, and during the majority of the treatment
not very marked in any direction. In the last interview, however, there
Is often a very noticeable upsurge of positive attitudes toward the counselor.
It is a no.ticeable fact that ambivalent attitudes are usually rather lacking
at the beginning of treatment (probably because negative attitudes are so
intense). About the middle of the treatment process ambivalent attitudes
begin to increase. One might suppose that the client is beginning to change
his mind about things but is still vacillating between positive and negative
attitudes. In some cases he never quite reaches the positive attitudes but
remains fairly ambivalent.
6. The Externalization of the Client's Attitude During the Treatment

Process
The evidence is not very clear-cut that the feelings of a client progress
from self-reference to external reference during treatment. For three cases
in this study such a shift took place, but for two of the others a change
in the opposite direction occurred. The sixth case was entirely sporadic.
As previously mentioned, marked positive attitudes toward the counselor
become apparent around the end of treatment.
7. How Can Such Unstructured Material As Psychotherapeutic Interviews

Be Made Into Measurable Data?
The reliability study of this research tends to prove that the therapeutic
interviews can be studied objectively. Also the comparison of data from
different subjects and the frequency with which similar trends are observed
supports this idea. The method used seems to be quite successful in making
the interview material capable of systematic analysis. This is more desirable
than the frequently used inferential method. The present study demon-
strates the value of this method of analysis of interviews for purposes of
training or teaching non-directive counseling. Students' work can be re-
corded and analyzed in such a manner that the students can be made aware
of their errors in method not only with regard to specific responses but with
regard to' the total pattern of their counseling. A student clinician can be
shown in this way in a very objective manner that he is overemphasizing an
undesirable method, or that he is making progress in his use of non-directive

principles.
8. Are the People Who Consider Their Methods Non-Directive Using a

Method Which is Truly in Line With the Principles Which
Are Proposed for That Method?
The four counselors whose work is studied in this research all believed
themselves to be making a conscientious effort to use non-directive therapy
in the sense in which it is defined by Rogers. That they did so. with a high
degree of success is indicated by two observations. First, study of the fre-
quencies of types of counselor material shows such frequencies to be in favor
of the rton-directive principle. The data indicate a predominance of simple
acceptances, and clarifications of feeling. A fair amount of structuring of
the situation, approval and encouragement, and non-directive leading is used.
The asking of direct questions, counselor's proposing client activity, persua-
sion by the counselor, and disapproval and criticism on the part of the coun-
selor, while present, are kept in very limited amounts. Interpretations and
the giving of information are also rather limited. U nclassifiable statements,
which might be interpreted to include those which did not fit into the theory
of non-directive counseling, comprised less than one per cent of the total
number of statements. A second point to support the hypothesis that the
counseling was non-directive is the reliability check of the classifications made
in this study. In this case a disinterested classifier was checking on the degree
to which classifications followed the definitions given for them, and the results
were shown to be consistent with those of the chief classifier.
9. Is It the Non-Directive or More Directive Elements of the Treatment

fVhich Produce the Therapeutic Results?
Responses to the directive categories of interpretation, explanation, pro-
posing client activity, persuasion, and disapproval and criticism are, as a
whole, unfavorable to the therapeutic results indicated by acceptance on the
part of the client. The asking of direct questions is usually rather unfavor-
ably received by the client. Except for approval and encouragement none
of the directive categories seem to produce favorable results in the attitudes
of the clients. Chi-squares obtained suggest that the changes in attitudes
from unfavorable to favorable are consistently assoCiated with the steps in the
client's thinking which are brought about by non-directive methods.
10. Does the Client. Really Show Insight in the Process of Changing
Attitudes?
The answer to this question is definitely positive. The data in all of the
tables support the notion that insight into the problem occurs during the coun-
seling situation with a greater frequency toward the end of the treatment
than at the beginning. A host of quotations from protocols would perhaps
be additional evidence. A few examples will be cited.
"It's really-! realize that I always, it's probably because I have
always stayed by myself a lot. I mean, not getting out and putting my
mind on others' work and realizing what achievements and what good
there was in everybody else. But instead of doing that, and keeping
my mind on myself, it's natural that I built up a lot of feeling of
importance as how great I was just because my whole life was just
occupying my thoughts. . . . So I am getting a little bit more of a
clearer outlook on life . . . . I have given up most of the time lately,
but I suppose rather than think it's just a big mess, the whole thing,
but trying to study-it's like if a person has committed a crime or some-
thing and their conscience was bothering them . . . . I believe th at one of
the biggest joys really in life is to try to . help others out. I u.sed to
think the happiness I got from that-that wasn't the biggest joy a per-
son could get in life, but lots of times I have been striving to get
something better than that and it's never come, and looking at others-
! believe that's about the biggest joy a person can have."
"My grandad wasn't always ·this way. He used to be good towards
us but I suppose it's probably because he isn't really better himself
that thing s don't go bett~r with him and the rest of the f amily, but
there isn't anything I can do about it, and the big thing is to try to
get out and forget it all. . . . And what I must do and should do is
to get out and work hard at school and put my mind on my business,
and, why then I would very quickly probably settle it."
" . . . I really do know that I should, instead of carrying on, I
ought to get out and quit looking in the corner, and do some of these
things and quit talking about th em. One thing, though, I have found, I
think, in talking here a lthough I haven't made much of an improvement
on myself, I have seen a little bit more of an objective look in things.
You begin to see that you're not very different from anyone else .. .. "
" . .. I think it is doing me good. Because I was thinking coming over
here tonight the things that used to bother me so much, now when I
get them off my chest, a kind of release from it all. At times I get
spells but it's not half as bad as itused to be. I was thinking today,-
beginning this new quarter of school how much more objectively I
was looking at things than I was at the beginning of the last quarter,
so I felt quite rejoicing or something."
"I think more or less definitely the only real solution I can find is to
this summer get some sort of job away from home where I'll have to
stick it out by myself and while that will be hard, at least I'll have
the advantage of being away from any little troubles or uprisings at
home, and that way I'll be helping myse lf out . . . . "
11. What is the Nature of the Feelings Which the Non-Directive Counselor
Attempts to Recognize?
This question has been answered somewhat by the answers to Questions 4,
5, and 6. Additional material of interest may be supplied from the
protocols to illustrate the recognition of feelings by a non-directive counselor.
Y. "Sometimes I wonder about just where the line between sanity
and insanity really is. That's why things I shouldn't worry about worry
me. I worry about trivial things that are all illogical."
X. "You worry for fear that these things may be an indication
that you are not in control of yourself."
Y. "I feel maybe it's not insanity the way most people think of it.
I'm not violent but in a certain sense it's unbalanced. Maybe there
iS< a wheel off the track. I had a toy train that if the wheel came off
the track the whole thing slowed down."
X . "You feel you aren't violent like insanity is pictured by most
people but you feel that you're abnormal, and it worries you."
Y. "Yes, I feel some part may be deranged some place. Some minor
part-very small thing but it upsets everything. Sometimes I want to
do something and get the energy out. We used to do things to try to
forget. Some things my parents and my brother didn' t know. Sometimes
we'd go to the - - - (tavern). Personally I can't stand the stuff.
It's just the feeling you forget and everything seems to adjust itse lf."
X. "You feel a tension which you have to release, so sometimes you
go away from things and try to get rid of it."
Y. "I try to get away from the feeling that things inside of me are
going to pull myself apart. I'd do anything to get away from it. We
used to go swimming in the quarry when we felt like that. We used
to swim and swim until our arms were falling off. That relieved the
tension . We used to fight each other just to get rid of the feeling that
things were there."
X. "You had a sort of inexpressable anxiety about a good many
pressures."
Y. "Yes, internal ones. I can't express it. It's like a balloon swelling
up inside and some day it's going to burst. It's like an appendix. It
swells up and eventually it bursts and gets rid of infection."
X. "You get to the point where you're pretty much worried, and you
feel you can't do much."
Y. "Yes, I want - - . I worry whenever I'm alone. If I'm alone
and I think about it, then I know it's going to1 come. If I keep busy I
don't worry too much."
X. "You have sort of an anxety that something's going to happen
to you."
Y. "Something from inside. I'm afraid even to be a failure.
haven't got anything to hang on to. I'm afraid that when college is
done I can't find what I want, and maybe I won't be able to do

anything."
X. "Some of the anxiety ties up with the future and what's going to
happen to you."
Y. "Yes, not anything past, but what's coming ahead.'• (Pause.)
X. "You don't feel sure enough of yourself that you can meet the
Issues you have to face."
Y. "Yes, I don't think I can do what people think I can do."
X. "You worry because people think you're pretty good and they're
expecting more from you than you can do."
Y. "They're building me up and I'm going to fall short of the
mark . . . ."
12. Do Feelin!(JS of the ClieJlt Or the Object Toward Which T 'hey Are
Directed Change During Non-Directive Treatment?
This point has been discussed in Question 5. The following material IS

selected to illustrate further:
X. "When you have a problem there are only a few things you
can do it, either figure it out or be excited by it, is that right?"
Y. "Yes, and I am all over being excited. That's 'mother.' Always
letting everything get her upset. Finally 'dad' started coming out and
I sat down and decided to figure it out. I still don't think it's fair to
us, but whether it's fair or not it's come."
X. "M-hm. When nothing can be done about a situation then the
best thing is to accept it, is that right?"
Y. "Yes. Accept it and try and make it fit your own needs or your
wants."
X. "In other words make out of it anything that there is in it for
you."
Y. "Yes, try and get as much out of it as you can. Try and make
detrimental points hit you as easily as possible.''
X. "You feel that these problems are not major issues among your
various problems any more?"
Y . "Well they are still major issues but they are not as great as they
were. (Pause) I am just beginning to feel at home here in Columbus.
Before this I was just visiting, but now it seems like there's more of
me back here in Columbus than there is in - - - .
X. "You feel that you are shifting your center of interest over to
Columbus."
Y. "Yes, my whole life is shifted to Columbus."
X. "Well, how have you been doing?"

Y. "All right. I have decided that the cause of my martyrdom
when I first began this treatment was on the basis of my selfishness. I
can see that now."

X. "M-hm. Want to carry that further?"
Y. "I can see that my actions in grade school and high school were
always pretty selfish. Everything that I did I was thinking of myself
first."
13. What is the Client's Attitude Toward the Counselor and the Treatment
Process During and After the Treatment Process?
Under consideration of Question 5 the data have shown the change in
attitude toward the counselor to be a change from hostile and indifferent at
the beginning of treatment, to accepting and favorable at the end. Much
material from the protocols is of interest and only a small amount of it can
be given as additional illustration of the poinr.
Y. "Maybe you could use these things in a thesis."
X. "That might be so."
Y. "Of course it's not much but it's sort of the opinion of one
person who has been through it all."
X. "Every time I come here when go home I feel more relaxed,

more at peace with people. It's just because I've had this chance of letting
off steam, I guess. No one ever tried to understand me before. I could
never tell anyone else these things, and I never had a chance to get
them off my chest. It seems that if I can tell it to you and you write
it down I seem to learn it best that way and then I can accept it. The
things I say to you I'm thinking about them-and saying them-and
hearing them, and afterwards I can see them written down."
Y. "Walking across the campus on the way here I kept thinking of

these interviews and what they were doing-the difference t-h ey've made
so far. I was sort of amazed."
X . "M-hm. You didn't think that it would be possible that all that
could happen to you, is that right?"
Y. "No. I didn't think it would be at all like that. - - - had
told me it made such a big difference in him, but I never thought
"it would make such a shocking difference."
X. "There won't be so many times that you will be able to come

in before the quarter is over."
Y. "No, just three more times. That'll be all, won't it?"
X. "That's probably right."
Y. "I don't know whether I will be willing to wind up then."
X. "In the book it discussed some things about getting things off
your ohest. Once you've told them it makes things easier. I have
told some things here that I've never told anyone else, and it works."
X. M-hm. You feel it helps considerably to get some of these things
spoken that way."

Y. "Yes, it helps me to realize the situation . . . and then I came
down here and started this-these treatments. And they have done more
than anything else. They are going to do more than anything else."
X. "M-hm. You feel that there are still problems left which have
to be considered."
Y. "Yes. Self-confidence, partial timidity, inability to impress people
that I like them . . . ."
X . "M-hm. You feel that that's something that we should be able
to give you, is that right?"
Y . "No, I don't think that you-don't know whether you can or not.
But if it's possible to give me any contributing factors, it would-I'd
like it. I have gained a great deal of confidence from these inter-
views. I don't worry about people so much. In fact I am having a
wonderful time just sitting around relaxing."
Attitudes toward the counselor are not always so favorable. The follow-
ing material is quoted from the one case which was considered unsuccessful
m treatment.
X. "You feel you don't know what is· able to cause this sort of thing ."
Y. "No- if I did I could find some solution. It's alw.ays what a
doctor does. When a person is ill he wants to know what causes it and
what is it-what it is, rather, so he could find some solution. I try to
give you the situation."
X . "You feel you have tried to give me the diagnosis that other
people have made."
Y. "I hope I have. That's what I have been attempting to do.
Would you say I've been successful in doing that? That question's be-
fore you now ."
E. SuMMARY AND CoNCLUSIONS
The present study was an investigation of the nature of non-directive

psychotherapy. Analysis was made of 48 therapeutic interviews made by
four counselors in the treatment of six different cases. Thirty of the inter-
views were recorded by electric phonograph recordings or by stenographic
dictation taken over concealed interphone. The number of interviews per

case varies from 5 to 13.
A system of classification of counselor and client statements and responses
was devised in such a manner as to differentiate various categories of content
and of feeling expressed. A classifier went through the transcribed
protocols of all interviews, broke down each statement into the essential ideas
present, and classified them according to the system. Approximately 10,000
such ideas were classified. Reliability of the classification was measured by

means of a recheck of four of the interviews by the classifier after an inter-
val of more than a month, during which time many other classifications were
made. Average reliability was approximately 80 per cent of the items re-
classified in exactly the same categories, and 85 per cent correctly classified by
main groups of categories. Further reliability check was made by having an
untrained scorer reclassify four different interviews. This classifier reclassi-
fied 60 per cent of the items in the exact categories which the original classi-
fier had used and approximately 74 per cent in the main groups of cate-
gories which the original classifier had used.
The data collected were then tallied first in an actual item count and sec-
ond with regard to the frequency with which certain client responses fol-
lowed certain coumelor statements. Any client response which followed
in the speech immediately after the counselor statement was classified as
being a sequel to all the counselor statements in the immediately pJ."eceding
statement. Tables containing all of this material were prepared. The data
were analyzed by use of the chi-square technique in such a manner as to show
the magnitude of deviations of an obtained frequency from the frequencies to
be expected on the basis of a hypothesis of a chance-distribution. On the
basis of the chi-squares obtained, together with a small amount of original
material cited from the protocols, certain inferences and deductions have
been made concerning the nature of the non-directive psychotherapy, and the
most important of these deductions are listed in series below.
1. It is possible for such unstructured material as psychotherapeutic inter-
views to be analyzed by the method used in this study and to be made into
measurable data. Such a technique has implications of significance for the
training of student counselors in non-directive psychotherapeutic techniques,
and for the analysis and improvement of psychotherapeutic procedures.
2. In typical non-directive psychotherapy the clarification of feeling com-
prises about half of the statements made by a counselor. The amount of
such clarification in the early stages of treatment comprises 44 per cent of
all responses and in the late stages of treatment, 26 per cent:
WILL!f\M U. SNYDER 221
3. Counselor's structuring of the interview situation, persuasion, disap-

proval or criticism, approval and encouragement, and non-directive leads each
occupy less than 10 per cent of the non-directive counselor's time, even in the
interviews when they are most frequently used.
4. Counselor's structuring of the problem and non-directive leads tend
to decrease during the process of treatment.
5. Counselor's approval and encouragement, disapproval, and persu<'ljion
tend to increase during the treatment process, the latter two not markedly.
6. On the average the counselor's use of simple acceptance comprises 25

per cent of his statements at the beginning and end of treatment, and 33
per cent at the middle of the treatment process.
7. A client's statement of the problem takes up approximately one-third
of his total number of responses, on the average. At the beginning of treat-
ment it is about 50 per cent of the responses while at the end of treatment it
falls off to around 18 per cent.
8. Understanding and insight on the part of the client comprises 12 per
cent of his responses at the beginning of treatment, 28 per cent in the middle,
followed by a slight drop, and 30 per cent at the end of treatment.
9. The client's discussion of plans starts practically at zero. in the first
interview and increases to approximately 12 per cent of his responses in the
last interview.
10. The client's tendencies to ask for information or to reject counselor
interpretations are fairly consistent throughout the treat ment at five and
three per cent respectively of the total number of responses.
I I. Statements of the client's problem most frequently follow non-direc-
tive leads by the counselor. Occasio nally a simple restatement of what the
client has said may bring about further statement of the problem. Approval
and encouragement produce statement of the problem in some cases.
12. A client's statement of the problem is seldom produced by a coun-
selor's structuring of the situation, direct questions, or clarification of feeling.
It is almost never produced by interpretation, persuasion, or disapproval and
criticism.
13. Asking for information by a client is usually caused by a counselor's
effort to structure a situation. Sometimes it follows direct questions asked
by the counselor, or disapproval and persuasion.
14. The type of counselor statement which most frequentl y produces
acceptance by the client is the clarification of client feelin gs.
15. Clients strongly reject interpretation, persuasion, disapproval, and
criticism. They frequently reject direct questions and the counselor's attempt
to structure the situation.
16. Understanding and insight most frequently follow simple acceptance

by the counselor of what the client has said. They also follow approval and
encouragement.
17. Clarification of feeling by the counselor does not seem to produce
understanding and insight as much as it produces simple acceptance. It is,
however, the major part of most non-directive counselors' statements and
ap~ars to be closely related to the gaining of rapport, and to the free
expression of attitudes.
18. The majority of feelings expressed by the client are associated with
statements of the problem, understanding and insight, and discussion of
plans.
19. Feelings associated with statement of the problem are usually nega-
tive. Those associated with understanding and insight and discussion of
plans are positive or occasionally ambivalent.
20. A client's feelings are not very often associated with asking for in-
formation, answering questions, acceptance or rejection of counselor's state-
ments; what feelings are associated with these statements are ambivalent
in character.
21. During treatment there is a marked tendency for the client's feelings
to change from a negative to a positive affective tone. In two of the six cases
clients changed from a negative to an ambivalent attitude, apparently never
quite reaching a positive attitude during the counseling process.
22. Attitudes of the client toward the counselor are usually slightly re-
jecting at first and indifferent during most of the treatment but in the last
interview or so there is a marked upsurge of positive attitudes toward the
counselor.
23. In four out of six cases, clients were sufficiently impressed by the non-
directive method to comment on it in a favorable manner and to differentiate
it from other types of therapy.
2+. There is no support for the notion that client's feelings become "ex-
ternalized" during treatment. Some cases do become more outgoing in atti-
tude, but others do not.
25. The method used by the non-directive counselors whose work was
studied in this investigation is essentially similar to the principles which have
been defined by Rogers for non-directive counseling. On the whole the
counselors are conducting their interviews very much in the manner they
state they are.
26. The facts of the present study clearly support the theory that 1t ts
the non-directive elements of this type of treatment which produce the
favorable change in the client's behavior. What directive elements exist are
unfavorably received. An exception is approval and encouragement, which
has sometimes been considered directive counseling, but which seem to have
a rather favorable effect when found in the amount used by the counselors
whose work was studied.
27. Clients approaching the end of treatment show an excellent amount
of insight into the nature of their problem.
28. In one out of six cases, a client rejected the non-directive method and
offered strenuous resistance to its use. The reason for this rejection of the
approach offers a field for fruitful research on the part of later investigators.
In general it may be said that the results of the present study show that
non-directive counseling can be subjected to a scientific investigation and that
such an investigation supports the hypothesis that it produces changes in the
client's attitudes toward himself (insight) and alteration in his behavior.
REFERENCES
1. CoVNER, B. J. Studies in the phonographic recordings of verbal material. J.
Consult. Psycho!., 1942, 6, 105-113.
2. . Studies in the phonographic recordings of verbal material: II. J.
Consult. Psycho!., 1942, 6, 149-153.
3. . A comparison of COIUnselor's written reports with phono,g raphic
recordings of counseling interviews. :Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State Univ ersity
Library, 1942.
4. PoRTER, E. H. The development and evaluation of a measure of counseling pro-
cedures. Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University Library, 1941.
5. ROGERS, C. R. Counseling and Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton-Mi'!Rin, 1942.
6. ROYER, A . E. An analysis of counseling procedures in a non-directive approach.
Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University Library, 1942.
D epartment of Psychology
Pennsylvania State College
State College, P ennsylvania

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This article was downloaded by: [Central Michigan University]

On: 09 February 2015, At: 06:12

The Journal of General

An Investigation of the Nature

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221309.1945.10544506

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF NON-DIRECTIVE

In Counseling and Psychotherapy, Rogers ( 5) points out basic differences

*Received in the Editorial Office on January 15, 1944.

portive relationship to approval and encouragement, and even this is to be

in an analytical study and raised numerous significant questions. 2 He failed,

further devices of comparison as percentages or chi-squares. The advantage of the

The material to be analyzed in the present study is based on the records

interviews which are transcribed from electrically made phonograph records

than two consecutive interviews omitted.

The classifications of counselor statements used in this study are pre-

NON-DIRECTIVE RESPONSE-TO-FEELING CATEGORIES (those which seem to attempt to re-

statement by understanding it. The wording need not be identical with

SEMI-DIRECTIVE RESPONSE-TO-FEELING CATEGORY. (Those responses which are interpre-

DIRECTIVE COUNSELING CATEGORIES (categories of responses which imply a relationship

therefore, that a two-dimensional type ·of classification was necessary for

in the description which follows. In the case of the second or "emotions"

Y DP-Discussion of plans, decisions, possible outcomes of plans. This cate-

into "ideas" which he defined as a clearly indicated change in the subject

C. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

relationships of each datum with all the others is indicated. Chi-square·

the conclusions in this study are based on these 66 tables of chi-squares,

examination of Table 4 shows that statement of the problem most frequently

1. Changes in the Frequencies of the Various Types of Counselor Statements

were drawn on fine-grade cross-coordinate paper, and accuracy was assured

types of categories. Figure 1 gives the previously described composite curves

2. Trends in the Various Types of Client Responses Throughout the Series

~ t.// ', """

and "asking for information" occur in fairly regular amounts at 5 and 3

3. Tendencies for Certain Types of Client Responses to Follow Certain

He shows a marked tendency to reject persuasion or disapproval and criticism

4. Tendency for Certain Types of Client Responses to Be More Associated

5. The Tendency for the Affective Tone of Feelings to Change Throughout

6. The Externalization of the Client's Attitude During the Treatment

7. How Can Such Unstructured Material As Psychotherapeutic Interviews

undesirable method, or that he is making progress in his use of non-directive

8. Are the People Who Consider Their Methods Non-Directive Using a

9. Is It the Non-Directive or More Directive Elements of the Treatment

home, and that way I'll be helping myse lf out . . . . "

done I can't find what I want, and maybe I won't be able to do

This point has been discussed in Question 5. The following material IS

X. "Well, how have you been doing?"

can see that now."

X. "Every time I come here when go home I feel more relaxed,

Y. "Walking across the campus on the way here I kept thinking of

X. "There won't be so many times that you will be able to come

spoken that way."

E. SuMMARY AND CoNCLUSIONS

The present study was an investigation of the nature of non-directive

dictation taken over concealed interphone. The number of interviews per

such ideas were classified. Reliability of the classification was measured by

3. Counselor's structuring of the interview situation, persuasion, disap-