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    tb004p FAST TRACK CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

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    Guillermo Enrique Campos Murillo

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    CONCRETE PAVING Fast-Track Concrete Pavements INTRODUCTION Airport authorities and road agencies face major challenges from increasing traffic volumes on existing airports, roadways and urban streets. Agencies must repair or replace deteriorated aging pavements while maintaining trafic on these structures. Traditional pavement construction, repair or replacement solu- tions are no longer acceptable due to increasing public impatience with trafic interruption. Traditional solu- tions are especially inappropriate in urban areas where congestion is sovere. Fast-track porttand cement conerete (PCO) pavernent construction resolves these problems by providing high-quality, long-lasting pave- ments with quick public access. Fast-track tech- niques are suitable for new construction, reconstruc- tion or resurfacing projects. Fast-track concrete pavement construction entails many methods for accelerating construction. ‘Traditional acceleration methods include time incen- tives or disincentives for project completion. Agencies have been using these completion-date incentives for many years, and often contractors will meet these. requirements by lengthening the work day or increas- ing the size of construction crews. Using fast-track concrete construction techniques a contractor can often complete a project without increasing crew size or changing normal labor schedules. To build a fast-track project, both the contractor and agency must make some changes to traditional con- struction specifications and processes, Often this entails high-early-strength (fast-track) concrete, but also can include revising: opening criteria, construction stag- ing, joint construction and worker responsibilities. Table 1 suggests changes to project components that can decrease construction time. This publication discusses background information and details for these changes. PROJECT APPLICATIONS Fast-track construction techniques allow engineers to consider concrete for projects thought unfeasible because of lengthy conerete cure-times. Some speci- fications require cure intervals from five to fourteen days for conventional concrete mixes (2). With fast- track techniques concrete can meet opening strengths in less than 12 hours (1,3,4). The following four seo- tions describe the use and potential benefit of fast- track for various road and airport applications. Highways and Tollways — ‘Some highway agencies are using public relation cam- paigns to inform highway users of major work on urban expressways and arterial streets. Many highway agencies also are using fast-track concrete pavement techniques to expedite construction and ease work zone congestion. Major fast-track projects in Chicago and Denver are good examples of how fast-track meets the need to decrease construction time for urban and suburban roadways (5,6) Tollway authorities lose revenue as a result of lane clo- sures because traffic delays cause many drivers to find alternate routes, Fast-track concrete minimizes rev- enue loss by allowing earlier access at high-congestion areas like toll-booths and interchanges. The need for fast-track techniques on rural highway or road construction is more limited. However, a contrac- tor may use fast-track techniques to accelerate con- ‘struction on portions of a project to allow construction equipment on the pavement sooner than usual. The contractor also may use fast-track for the last portion of a project to speed final opening to public vehicles. ‘The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is encour- aging all highway agencies to use fast-track concrete to meet special construction needs (1). Table 1. (Changes to project components useful to shorten concrete pavement construction tine (1) Lait ok Lak aL deere a rales) Planning eeee Imploment partnering-based project management. Implement lane rental charges. ‘Alow night construction ‘Alow contractor to use innovative equipment or procedures to expedite construction (for example: minimum clearance machines, dowel inserters, ultra-light saws). ‘Specify more than one concrete mix for varied strength development Provide options to contractors not step-by-step procedures. Use time-of-completion incentives and disincentives. Concrete Materials Try different cement types (particularly Type Il) Use helpful admixtures. Use a uniform aggregate grading. Koop water-cement-plus-pozzolan ratio below 0.43, Jointing & Sealing ‘Allow green Sawing with ultra-light sews. Use dry-sawing blades. Use step-cut blades for single pass joint sawing. Use a soalant that is unaffected by moisture or reservoir cleanliness. Concrete Curing & Temperature cele eeelerccleoe ‘Specify blanket curing to aid strength gain when beneficial ‘Monitor concrete temperature and understand relationship of embient, ‘subgrade and mix temperature on strength gain. Elevate concrete temperature before placement. ‘Strength Testing Use non-dastructive mathods to replace or supplement oyfinders and beams for strength testing. Use concrete maturity or pulse-velocity testing to predict strength. Traffic Opening Criteria Revise from time to strength criteria. (Channel early loads away from slab edges. Restrict use to automobile traffic during early age period, Streets — Fast-track technology also provides solutions for pub~ lic. access on residential and urban streets. Residents along suburban streets can gain access to their drive- ways within twenty-four hours. in Denver, Colorado, fast-track reconstruction of an urban arterial cut 75 days from the 200-day schedule (Figure 1) (6). Figure 1. Denver, Colorado, comoleted arterial reconstruction project (6). Intersections — Intersections pose major construction staging and traf fic interruption challenges because they encompass two or more streets. As a result, agencies wil often resurface intersections to cover-up rutting, raveing, corrugation and other safety problems instead of replacing the won pavements. However, a unique project by the lowa Department of Transportation involved the replacement of nine intersections using fast-track concrete (7,8). Using two concrete mixes and night construction, the contractor finished each intersection without disrupting daily rush-hour traffic (8), Reconstructing intersections one quadrant at a time allows traffic to continue ta use the roadways. With fast-track techniques and quadrant construction, a contractor can pave the intersection in less than one week. Where itis feasible to close the entire intersec- tion for a short time, a contractor can use fast-track techniques to complete reconstruction over a week- end. Airports — (On airport aprons, runways and taxiways, fast-track concrete speeds sequential paving pours. Fast-track concrete gains strength quickly and allows contractors, to operate slipform equipment on the intial paving lanes sooner than normal. This reduces the construc- tion schedule by shortening the wait before paving interior lanes (Figure 2). Fast-track also can speed reconstruction of cross runway intersections, runway extensions, and runway keel sections. This may be Necessary to maintain traffic at commercial airports or {or the national defense at military air bases. Figure 2. Paving interior anes on an airport facility (note the use of inal lanes for construction platform). PLANNING Developing a traffic-handling plan before construction is essential for projects with high traffic volumes. The goal is to reduce the construction period and minimize tratfic disruption. An agency will benetit because ‘meeting this goa! will curtail public complaints, busi- ness impacts, user delay costs and traffic control costs, The contractor will benefit by reducing workers’ exposure to accidents and reducing the time equip- ment is needed at a project. Fast-track techniques provide an option for minimizing trafic disruption by ‘shortening lane closure time (1). Planners should include fast-track techniques in assessment of project feasibility or in development of construction staging plans. Table 2 lists other issues that also should be considered when planning a fast- track project. Table 2. Important considerations for planning fast-track projects, Meola Un ke aac) ‘Access for local tratfic. Local business disruption. Uttity work. Construction equipment access and operation. Pavement edge drop-off requirements. Crossovers thet disrupt both directions of traffic. Detour routes can suffer damage & congestion from prolonged construction zone detours. Using fast-track concrete near the end of one day's paving can facilitate next-day startup. ‘One common method specifiers use to assure project ‘completion by a certain date is through a completion time contract that offers monetary incentives and disin- centives to the contractor. With time incentives or dis incentives, the agency specifies the completion date and the daily incentive or disincentive value, The con- tractor earns the incentive for completing the project before the deadline or pays the disincentive for finish- ing late. These arrangements are easily understood and usually assure timely construction. However, cer- tain new lane rental contracting techniques may be ‘more useful for fast-track conorete construction because they encourage more contractor flexibility and innovation than a completion-time contract. Lane Rental — Lane rental is an innovative contracting practice that encourages contractors to lessen the construction impact on road users (9,10). There are three basic lane-rental methods, cost-plus-time bidding, continu- ous site rental and lane-by-lane rental. For each method the agency must determine a rental charge for Use of all or part of the roadway by the contractor. The rental charge usually coincides with the user cost esti- mate for delays during project construction, The user costs vary in each project and consequently so should rental charges. Computer programs, such as QUEWZ, can be helpful to determine work zone user costs (11). Not all projects warrant lane rental assessments. A lane rental contract requires special contracting terms and is most suitable for large projects where construc- tion congestion management is critical. To reduce congestion on smaller projects an agency can modify concrete materials and construction specifications to decrease road or lane closure time. Contract manage- ment and record-keeping on lane rental projects can be difficult. There can be confusion in determining how to account for partial completion of portions of a project. Therefore, itis important for contract lan- guage to cover these situations. Cost-plus-time bidding (also called “A+B bidding”) divides each contractor's bid into two parts, the con- struction cost and the time cost (9,10). Along with construction costs, the contractor must include an estimate of the number of days necessary to complete the project in the bid. The agency muttiplies the time estimate by a daily rental charge to determine a time cost, and then adds the time cost to the construction cost to determine each contractor's total bid value. The contractor with the lowest combined cost receives the contract for construction. To encourage maximum production, cost-plus-time bidding should also include ‘a. completion-time incentive and disincentive. lane-by-lane rental, the contractor pays for the lanes or combination of lanes that his crew occupies during construction. The agency can vary the lane rental rates depending on the lane in use (outside, inside, shoulder) or upon the time of day or week (Table 3). This encourages the contractor to occupy lanes in off-peak hours and stage construction thoughtfully. This contracting arrangement may not be suitable for certain reconstruction projects with limited staging options. Table 3. ‘Sample proportional hourly lane-by-lane rental Charge for a project length (2) Closure or Obstruction | Peak Time Periods | All Other Hours Goes Eeoetay re ane % 0.2518 ‘Ono thor 025.55 2.0625 69 ‘Ons ane and dhaider 125108) 0.3150 Two anes 2.25509 2.825089) “wo anos ana sour 250009 2.667549 Partnering — ‘The agency's goal is usualy clear for fast-track pro- jects — perform the work with minimal traffic disrup- tion. Many agencies and contractors are now using partnering arrangements to focus on project goals and to maintain open communication. The result is timely decision making that keeps construction moving, saves money, and reduces the chance a problem will grow into a dispute. Specifications — ‘Small specification changes that expand the contrac: tor’s construction and equipment choices often result in signiicant time savings. Examples include: mini mum-clearance slipform paving machines, dowel-bar inserters, and ultra-light saws. Specifying more than Cone concrete mix will also allow a contractor to meet Gifferent construction needs within a project. End-result specifications provide the most freedom to the contractor. With end-result specifications the con- tractor must provide a pavement meeting materi thickness and smoothness criteria. The agency does not closely control proportioning of the conerete mix or the method of paving. Fast-track concrete construc- tion automatically becomes a contractor option with end-result specifications (12). Providing a choice of concrete mixes is a simple way of expanding contractor flexibility. Fast-track project specifications might include a mix for normal, moder- ate and high-early strength concrete. The contractor can choose from the different concrete mixes to suit different construction situations. For the majority of a large project the choice would probably be the normal mix. The contractor might decide to use the fast-track mix for the final several batches each work day to ensure that sawing could be done before nightfal. The fast-track mix also will ensure that the concrete at the construction joint (header is strong enough for startup the following day. The moderate strength-gain mix might be useful for areas where construction tratfic enters and leaves the new slabs. Innovative Equipment — Recent improvements in paving equipment enhance the versatity of fast-track concrete, Minimum-clear: ‘ance slipform paving machines allow placement of conerete pavernent adjacent to traffic lanes or other appurtenances (Figure 3a). This allows single-lane reconstruction or resurfacing next to trafic on adjacent lanes or shoulders, With dowel bar inserters, dowel bar supporting bas kets are not necessary. The dowel insertion equip- ment mounts to a slipform paving machine and frees, the construction lane(s) for concrete haul trucks and other construction vehicles. Tests of the modern dowel bar inserters show that their placement accura- cy is as good as or better than that with traditional dowel baskets (13) ‘Advancements in large-diameter [up to 1270-mm (60- in}] coring equipment may reduce urban construction time. The new equipment can cut concrete around ‘existing or planned manholes and eliminate the need to place ulity box-outs before paving new streets (Figure 36). The coring equipment is also useful to cut around @ manhole so it can be raised for an overlay. Figure 3, a) Minimum-clearance slipform paving machine, b) large-diameter coring equipment for uty cuts CONCRETE MATERIALS (One of the primary ways to decrease facility closure time is to use a concrete mix that develops strength rapidly, Rapid strength gain does not require special blended: coments or sophisticated construction methods. It is possible to proportion a mix using locally available cements, additives, admixtures and aggregates, When proportioning fast-track conerete mixes, mater: als engineers also should consider the additional infiu- ence of heat of hydration, aggregate size distribution, entrained air, water temperature, curing provisions and, ‘ambient and subbase temperature. These factors may influence early and long-term concrete strength. ‘There is no specific proportioning necessary for a fast- track mix. Many different combinations of materials Table 5. Some factors that infuonce trash and hardened mix properties (2, 19,20) Peas ince Risa PLACEMENT FACTOR "+ Water-cament-plus-pozzolan ratio ‘Coment (composition and fronass) specifying a fast-track mix, The lab work should determine plastic and hardened concrete properties using project materials and should verify the compati- bilty of all chemically active ingredients in the mix. Table 5 shows some factors that influence mix proper- ties and may aid mix proportioning. wil result in rapid strength gain. Table 4 shows typical cere en fast-track mix proportions and components for Long-Term Strength | presence and type of admixtures ‘American Society of Testing Materials* (ASTM) C 150, ‘© Concrete temperature ‘Type | and Type Ill cements (14,15). Certain propri- 4 Guting metho anc duration etary blended cements and other admixtures also may + Tire produce acceptable results. © Coment ype | Total water content © Concrete temperature Table 4. Typical fast-track mx components and proportions Early Strength Gain Rate (14,15,16,17, 18) aa fe Nekicirts forgeire [+ Presence and typeof admis ew Rae Errad arraiaied {ASTUO SOT | | 436475 gh? PEDO Be) «Aggregate qualiy and grading ASTM 120 ype | 46478 0.80 ae) + Entranod air foubbo sto and spacing) aa Tsim ciaGesc | —o-8igi™ O80 BiH een E eat a= ree Freeze-Thaw Durability |~ Total water content ee ef} a [+ Wate-cement-ps-pozzoan ratio fraraneg since | — ASTOR Tee + Caring method ane duration Tic ecicg ome | ASIC “rs [+ Aggregate parte shape 5 + Combines aggregate gracing "For specie mix proportions on actual projects See Table 11 con : Workabity '¢ Total water content /¢ Presence and type of amit + Presence of pozzolans ‘A thorough laboratory analysis is important before fa -Aggwagets ards Generally, fast-track concrete will provide good dura- bility, This is because most fast-track mixes have ‘entrained air and a relatively low water content that both improve strength and decrease chloride perme- ability (2). Freeze-thaw deterioration can occur if water freezes and expands within a conorete binder with a poor air-void distribution, or if the concrete contains: poor quality aggregates. However, fast-track concrete with an adequate air-void distribution resists water penetration and relieves pressures that develop in the binder (2). Airentrained fast-track conorete is resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration even in the presence of dicing chemicals. + Equivalent Canacian standards for all ASTM standards end tests addressed inthis publication are found in appendix B. Prcent of entrainad air Compressive strength (Curing method and duration Abrasion Resistance Cement — ASTM G 150 Types |, Il, or ill, portiand cement can produce successful fast-track mixes (21). There also are several proprietary cements that develop high-early strengths useful for fast-track applications (3). However, not every portland coment will gain strength rapidly and testing is necessary to confirm the applica- bility of each cement (22,23,24) ‘The speed of strength development is a result of the hydration and heat generation characteristics of a par- ticular combination of cement, pozzolan and admix- tures). Cements play a major role in both strength and heat development, and these properties depend ‘on the Interaction of the individual compounds that constitute the cement. High levels of tricalcium silicate (C38) and finely ground coment particles will usually generate strength quickly (22,24). Tricalcium aluminate (CA) also can be a catalyst to enhance the rate of hydration of CaS by releasing heat early during cement hydration. However, Ca does not contribute much to long-term strength, and in general, CgS is the major chemical contributor to both early and long-term strengths (Figure 4) (22,28,24) a i é s 2 g & 8 5 £ : 3 3 i 3 e ca+csn, 7? & 8 5 3 ‘Time (days) Figured. Contiouon of cement compounds to sterge ‘development (22). Finely ground cement increases surface area and allows more cement contact with mix water and con- sequently faster hydration. Type il cement, which is much finer than other types of portland cement, usual: ly develops strength quickly. Blaine fineness values for Type ll cement range from about 500 to 600 m"/kg. ‘Type | cement Blaine fineness values range only from 300 to 400 mé/kg (2,22). Although the fineness of ‘Type Ill coment provides a much greater surface area for the hydration reaction, it also may require a little more water to coat the particles. However, because Type Ill cement is ground finer than other cements, there is more potential for problems, that may result from overheating the cement during the grinding phase of manufacturing. These include false sot, and excessive water or air entraining agent demand. False set is a rapid stiffening of the concrete shortly after mixing, This is not a major problem and it is possible to restore workability without damaging the normal set of the concrete through further mixing in a transit mixer (22). The materials engineer and contrac tor should be aware of these phenomena when testing materials, and proportioning mixes and trial batches. It is advisable to prepare tests using the same cement that the contractor will use in construction. A low water-cement: plus-pozzolan ratio contributes to low permeability and good durability (22). A water- cement-plus-pozzolan ratio between 0.40 and 0.50 provides moderate chloride permeability for concrete made from conventional materials. A water-cement- pplus-pozzolan ratio below 0.40 typically provides low chloride permeability (25). Most fast-track mixes have a ratio less than 0.43 and consaquently provide mod- erate to low permeability, It is important to remember that durability is not a function of early strength, but is a function of long-term strength, water-cement-plus-pozzolan ratio, perme- ability and proper ai-void system. Some available cements and pozzolans will contribute to early con- crete strength, but may not continue to influence long- term strength. Mixes using these materials may appear to meet the quick strength development neo- essary for fast-track concrete paving, but may net pro- vide adequate durability, Because of this inoonsisten- cy, Concrete technicians should evaluate a mix at sev- eral phases of hydration to ensure it meets both early strength and long-term durability requirements. “Type Ill cement has been primarily used for the manu- facture of precast conerete products. Before using a Type Ill cement in paving, it may be advisable for agency and contractor material technicians to confer with local precast concrete manufacturers to leam of any pecularities. At least one state uses a minimum hydraulic-mortar culbe-specimen strength (ASTM C. 109) to test Type Ill coment (4,26). The cement must reach 9.0 MPa (1300 psi, at 12 hours to qualify for use in fast-track conerete paving. Concretes using Type | and Type Il portland cement, also can produce adequate characteristics for fast- track construction. However, to develop adequate early and long-term strength, concrete made from these cements will usually require chemical admix- tures, Supplementary Cementing Materials — Is possible to use fly ash or ground-granulated blast- furnace slag in addition to portland cement in fast- track conerete. During cement hydration, these sup- plementary cementing materials react with the chemi- cal products of portland cement to extend strength gain. They also act as fine particle filers in the binder to aid concrete workability and finishabilty (2,24). Fly Ash — There are two fly ash classifications, ASTM C618, Class C and Class F (16), Class C fly ash has ‘some cementitious properties that allow it to hydrate like cement. Therefore, adding small quantities of Class C tly ash to a fast-track mic will usually not impede early strength development. When compatible with portland cement, Class C fly ash will also lower ‘water demand, improve workability and increase long- term strength (2). Although experience on most fast-track projects is with concrete employing Ciass C fly ash, Class F also may produce acceptable results. Class F fly ash is generally ot cementitious and can only react with the chemical products of portland cement hydration. Therefore, Class F fly ashes do not contribute much to early strength of concrete. However, Class F fly ash can extend long-term strength, reduce permeability, and ‘combat the deleterious effects of sulfates or alkals (2) Itis important to evaluate fast-track concrete contain- ing fly ash. Include both fly ash and cement to deter- mine the water-cement-plus-pozzolan ratio for mixture proportioning (24). Strength tests should be made through the range of probable mix temperatures to indicate how temperature influences hydration. As the overall mix temperature drops, fly ash can slow hydra- tion and significantly delay final set. Knowledge of this temperature sensitivity will be useful to the inspector and contractor during construction under fiekd conci- tions. Accelerating admixtures will probably be neces: sary should the laboratory study show unacceptable strength retardation with fy ash. Nortnally substituting about 10% Class C fly ash for cement in fast-track concrete should provide accept- able results. At this rate a fast-track concrete mix should not be overly sensitive to fly ash inconsistencies, and should achieve adequate early strength gain. Ground-Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag — Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag is another ‘cementitious material that might be acceptable for fast-track concrete. In concrete, ground-granulated blast-furnace slag can increase long-term strength and improve the finishability (2). However, because its effects are temperature sensitive, laboratory studies are necessary to determine the optimal dosage rate and the effects of temperature on strength develop- ment. Strength development should be similar to nor- mal conerete at temperatures around 21°C (70°F) (2) For cooler temperatures it may be necessary to extend 8 the curing and insulating period, or impose tempera- ture and seasonal limitations for use in fast-track paving, Air-Entraining Admixtures — Air-sntraining admixtures meeting ASTM C 260. requirements are used to entrain microscopic air bub- bles in concrete (2,17). Entrained air improves con- crete durability by reducing the adverse effects of freezing and thawing (2,22,23,24). The volume of entrained air necessary for good durability varies by the severity of the environment and the concrete's maximum coarse aggregate size. Normal concrete mixes have 4.5 to 7.5% entrained air Air-entrainment is necessary for fast-track conorete, During field mixing itis important to use the appropri- ate air-entraining admixture dosage rate so that the air content after placement is adequate (4.5%-7.5%). Higher percentages of entrained air can reduce the early and long-term strength of the mix, while lower percentages will reduce the concrete durability Water-Reducing Admixtures — Water-reducing admixtures reduce the quantity of water necessary in a concrete mix or improve worka~ bility at a given water content (2). Many highway agencies only use water reducers to improve the work- ability of narmal concrete. However, water-reducing admixtures also can increase early strength in fast- track concrete by lowering the quantity of water nec- essary for cement hydration. This is because water reducers lower the number of cement particle agglomerations and disperse cement particles (22,23). Water reducers can be used to increase early concrete strength with any cement, but are especially useful! when using Type | cement in a fast-track mix, Table 6 lists five water-reducing admixtures covered by ASTM C 494 (18). Water-reducing admixture Types A, E and F generally provide the necessary properties for fast-track concrete. ASTM G 1017 also classifies cer- tain high-range water-reducing admixtures as super- plasticizers (27). Many available high-range water- reducing admixtures meet both ASTM C 494 and C 1017 requirements. While most water-reducing admixtures will work well with different portland cements, laboratory testing is essential to determine if a concrete containing the admixture wil develop the desirable properties. ASTM C 494, Type A admixtures are common in fast- track concrete. Generally a concrete containing a Type ‘A water-reducing admixture wil require from 5 to 10% ‘ess water, than a similar mix without the admixture. A Type D water-reducing (set-retarding) admixture may be desirable when very high mix temperatures induce early set that preempts placing and finishing opera- tions. Type D water-reducers slightly retard the initial set to extend the period of good workability for placing land finishing. The retardation period usually lasts for about the first 12 hours. Admixtures meeting Type E, F or G requirements require thorough laboratory evalu- ation to determine if the concrete properties are acceptable for anticipated environmental conditions and placement methods. These materials may be more appropriate for high slump mixes. Table 6. Waterreducing adminturos specod in ASTM C404 (18). Ak ed Effect Water-Reducer (Type A) ‘© Reduces water demand minimum 5 percent Water-Reducer & Retarder | Reduces water demand (Type 0) ‘minimum 5 percent 1 Rotards sot Water-Raducer & Accelerator |* Reduce water demand (Type &) ‘minimum 5 percent © Accelerates set Figh-Range Water Reducer | Reduces water demand (Type A) minimum 42 percent High-Range Water-Reducer & |* Reduces water demand Fetarder (Type G) ‘minimum 12 percent © Rtards set Accelerating Admixtures — Accelerating admixtures aid strength development and reduce iitial set times by increasing the reaction rate ‘of CgA (22). Accelerating admixtures generally consist of soluble inorganic salts or soluble organic com- pounds and should meet ASTM G 494, Type requirements (18). The most common accelerator is calcium chloride salt (CaCig). Many agencies use CaClz for full-depth and partial-depth concrete pavement patching for quick curing and opening to traffic. The optimum dose is about 2 percent by weight of cement and will approxi- mately double the 1-day strength of normal concrete (4). However, itis very important to test both frash and hardened concrete properties before specifying a mix containing an accelerating admixture. With some aggregates, concrete will be susceptible to earty ‘reeze-thaw damage and scaling in the presence of CaCig. Anothor drawback of CaClg is its corrosive effects on reinforcing steel. If the pavement requires any steel, itis advisable to select a non-chloride accel- erator or alternate method of achieving early strength. Aggregate — Aggregates that comply with standard ASTM C 33 ‘specifications are acceptable for use in fast-track con- crete (see reference 28). Existing fast-track projects made with concrete containing these aggregates have met their early strength requirements and are providing good service. However, consideration of grading uni- formity and aggregate particle shape may further opti- mize early and long-term conerete strength. These factors also can have a significant influence on the plastic and hardened mix properties and may warrant consideration for fast-track applications ‘Typical procedures consider the proportions of coarse and fine aggregates without significant concern to the combined or total gracing. Consequently, concrete producers draw aggregate from two stockpiles at the plant site, one for coarse and one for fine material. To improve grading uniformity may require adcitional inter- mediate size material (blend sizes) at the plant site dur- ing project construction. Grading — Grading data indicates the relative quan- tity of aggregate by particle size. Slove analyses of source stockpiles is necessary to characterize the materials. However, the best use of such data is to calculate the combined aggregate grading based upon the proportions of aggregate in the mixture. Well- graded mixtures generally have a uniform distribution of aggregates on each sieve. Gap-graded mixtures have a deficiency of particles retained on the 2.36 mm, ‘through 600 im (Nos. 8 through 30) sieves. ‘The optimum combined aggregate grading is the one that most efficiently uses locally available materials to fil the major voids in the volume of concrete so as to reduce the need for mortar. However, particle shape and texture, especially in the intermediate sizes, are important to the response of the concrete to vibration, A concrete with an optimum aggregate grading and good consolidation will produce dense and durable concrete without edge slump. (One approach to evaluate the combined aggregate grading is to assess the percentage of aggregates: co i T 7 ; nd ce GAP GRADING H uthtiti} at : : 2 TP 7 i n 3 + 1 UNIFORM GRADING 1 & 1 I : = t Zi : | aa T g = tt | Bea | Be T r 5 10 "| Se i Ea a mH fe i 7 + fi + sr ita T i . 1 Th pam olt v1 f ssa SE E ES Ec a aa a & 8822 &F Fe Fe eS §F f= &F Es S28, ,22 s& st 28 28 es\ es 28 g§&2 at oa + ge gs og BE Sieve Sizes Figure 5. Grading plot showing gap graded mixture and mixture with adequate intermediate particles. retained on each sieve (29). A grading that approach: 8 the shape of a “bell-curve" on a standard grading chart indicates an optimal distribution igure 5). Blends that leave a deficiency in the intermediate parti- cles are partially gap graded and can produce highly variable concrete. ‘There is a definite relationship between aggregate Grading uniformity and concrete strength, workability and long-term durability (2,13,0). Intermediate size Uniform grading Gap grading Figure 6. Diagram showing how intermediate bend size ‘aggregates ill spaces between larger coase ‘aggregates. 10 aggregates fill voids typically occupied by less dense: cement paste and thereby optimize concrete density (Figure 6). Increasing concrete density in this manner will sult in ‘Reduced mix water demand and consequently improved strength because less mortar is necessary to fil space between aggregates. increased concrete durability through reduced avenues for water penetration in the hardened mix. ‘#Bottor workability and mobility because large aggregate particles do not bind in contact with other large particles under the dynamics of fin- ishing and vibration. ‘#Less edge slump because of increased particle-to-particle contact. “Reduced wear on conerete mixers, drums and equipment, Gradation uniformity also influences workability or the ease of placing, consolidating and finishing concrete, While engineers traditionally look at the slump test as a measure of workability, it does not reflect that charac: teristic of concrete. Slump evaluates only the consis- tency of a single concrete batch and provides a rela- tive measure of consistency between separate con- crete batches of the same mix proportions (2). Concrete with a well graded combined aggregate will often be much more workable at a low slump than a poorly graded mixture having a higher slump. A uni- form grading may change slump by 89 mm (8.5 in) over a similar gap-graded mix. This is because about 820-420 kg/m? (20-30 Ib/yd*) less water is necessary to maintain mix consistency than is necessary with a gap grading (30). Particle Shape and Texture — The shape and tex- ture of aggregate particles impact concrete properties (2). Sharp and rough particles generally produce less workable mixes than rounded and smooth particles at the same water-cement-plus-pozzolan ratio (2,80). However, the bond strength between aggregate and, cement mortar improves as aggregate texture increas es. The improved bond will improve concrete flexural strength (2). Cube-shaped crushed or natural coarse aggregates and natural sands are very mobile under vibration. ‘These shapes are ideal for reinforced pavements that contain dowel baskets or continuous steel. Good mobility allows the conorete to flow easily around the baskets, chairs and reinforcing bars. Flat or elongated intermediate and large aggregates can cause mix problems (2,13). These shapes gener- aly require more mix water and/or fine aggregate for workability, and consequently result in lower concrete flexural strength. Itis advisable to allow no more than 15 percent flat or elongated aggregate by weight of total aggregate (2). Use standard test method ASTM. 1D.4781 to determine the quantity of flat or elongated particles (31). Water — Cement hydration is exothermic, consequently the sooner the temperature of a mix rises, the faster the imix will develop strength. One way to raise the tem- perature of plastic concrete is to heat the mix water. However, this is more practical for small projects that do not require a large quantity of concrete, such as intersection reconstruction, Several factors influence the water temperature need- {ed to produce a desirable mix temperature at place- ment. The critical factors are: ambient air temperature, aggregate temperatures, aggregate free moisture con: tent and cement type. When necessary, ready-mix concrete producers heat water to 60-66°C (140- 150°F) to elevate mix temperature sufficiently for cool- weather construction. To avoid a flash set of the ‘cement, itis important to combine the hot water and ‘aggregates before adding the cement when mixing batches (2). Hot water is only a catalyst that facilitates early hydra: tion and its benefits are generally short-ived. Several hours of heat containment through insulation may be ecassary for rapid strength gain to continue particu- larty when cool conditions prevail CONSTRUCTION No special equipment is necessary for a contractor to place fast-track concrete pavernent. However, because the time for placement can be shorter than with conventional paving, fast-track paving requires well-planned construction sequencing. Contractors and specifying agencies should be aware that opera- tion adjustments will be necessary while the paving ‘rew becomes accustomed to mix characteristics. It wil take time for workers to become comfortable with accelerating their duties. Constructing test slabs wil familiarize an inexperienced crew with the plastic prop- erties of the fast-track concrete before starting full scale operations. Contractors have built successful fast-track concrete Pavements using both slipform and standard form construction techniques (Figure 7). There are no reports indicating unusual problems with mixing, plac- ing and finishing fast-track concrete. However, the contractor and agency should carefully consider con- crete haul distances on large projects. Figure 7. Stipform paver placing fast-track concrete on a res ermal route. 1 It may be necessary to adjust mechanical vibration on slipform pavers for mixes with a high cement content and large proportion of fine aggregate. These mixes can have low mobiity and require adjustment for good consolidation and ease of finishing. Before paving, the slipform crew should check that vibrators are function- ing properly and that each is at the correct location, depth and spacing. ‘The adjustments that aecompany construction start- Up on fast-track projects normally will not interfere with the ride quaity. Contractors have buill fast-track pro- Jects to meet conventional ride specifications, and agencies should not modify their smoothness specifi Cations for fast-track concrete pavements. Curing & Temperature Management — Curing provisions are necessary to maintain a satisfac- tory moisture and temperature condition in concrete @). Internal concrete temperature and moisture directly influence both early and ultimate concrete properties, and therefore itis important to apply curing provisions immediately after placing and finishing activities (2,32). More than standard concrete, curing is critical to fast- track concrete for the moisture and heat retention nec- ‘essary to fuel hydration during the early strength gain petiod. Fast-track pavements require thorough curing protection in difficult environmental conditions. Air temperature, wind, relative humidity and suniight, Influence concrete hydration and shrinkage, These factors may heat or coo! concrete or draw moisture from exposed concrete surfaces. The subbase can be a heat sink that draws energy from the concrete in cold weather, or a heat source that adds heat to the bottom of the stab during hot, sunny weather. Monitoring heat development in the concrete enables the contractor to adjust curing measures to influence the rate of strength development, the sawing window, and the potential for cracking, It is particularly impor- tant to monitor temperature when environmental or curing conditions are unusual or weattier changes are imminent (82). Maturity testing allows field measure: ment of concrete temperature and correlation to con- crete strength. The section “Non-destructive Testing describes maturity testing in more detail Curing Compounds — ‘AI iquid- membrane forming curing compounds should meet ASTM C 309 material requirements (33). Typically 12 \White-pigmented compound (Type 2, Class A) is applied to the surface and exposed edges of the concrete pavement. Most paving specifications require an appli- cation rate around 5.0 m?/ (200 #/gal). The materials create a seal that limits evaporation of mix water and Contributes to thorough cement hydration. The white color also reflects solar radiation during bright days to prevent excessive heat build up in the concrete surface. Ciass A liquid curing compounds are sufficient for fast track concrete under moderate placement conditions when the application rate is sufficient. ‘Agencies that build concrete pavements in mountain- us and arid climates often specity a sightly heavier dosage rate of resin based curing compound meeting ASTM C 809, Type 2, Class B requirements, The harsher climate causes dramatic daily temperature changes often at low humidity levels. As a resuit, con- crete is often more susceptible to plastic shrinkage ‘racking and a shorter window for joint sawing. Fast-track concrete rapidly consumes mix water during early hydration and may lead to a larger potential for plastic shrinkage at the surface. Therefore, it is advis- able to increase the application of curing compound for fast-track projects to about 8.75 m/l (150 ft?/gal. Because deep tining increases surface area, the highor application rate also is important where surface texture tine depth exceeds about 3 mm (1/8 in). Bonded overlays iess than 150 mm (6 in) thick require an appii- cation rate of 2.5 m2/ (100 ft2/ga). The thin overlay slabs have a large ratio of surface area to concrete vol- ume so evaporation consumes proportionately more mix water than with typical slabs (34), ‘The fist few hours, while the conorete is stil plastic, are the most critical for good curing. Therefore, the con- tractor should apply the curing compound as soon as possible after final finishing. Construction and public vehicte tires may wear some of the compound off the surface after opening, but this does not pose a problem because the concrete should have reasonable strength and durability by that time. Blanket Insulation — Insulating blankets provide a uniform temperature environment for the concrete. Insulating blankets reduce heat loss and dampen the effect of both air temperature and solar radiation on the pavement, but do not negate the need for curing com- pound (4). The purpose of blanket insulation is to aid early strength gain in cool ambient temperatures. Table 7 indicates when insulation is recommended (32). Table 7._ Blanket use recommendations (32). Ue Us <10°C (<50°F) YES No 10-189 (60-65°F) Yes No 18-27°C (65-80°F) YES No No No NO 227°C (>80"F) NO No. No. No NO. Contractors will usually place blankets soon after rt applying curing compound. However, if conditions are ral warm, it may be acceptable to wait several hours and (7. Stake nstaion instead place the blankets as the joint sawing pro. ipleon eeee Se ee gtesses (see photo below). in any case, itis inadvis~ e | g able to wait until after finishing all joint sawing to start 2 10 = placing insulating blankets. é « & a oF ; g * a» me 10 50 +00 Le Time Figure 8. Tme-temperature pot rom fst-track project Joint sawing just ahead of blanket placement on fast-track bond- 2 overlay project. Experience indicates that an insulating blanket with a minimum thermal resistance (R) rating of 0.035 m2°KW (0.6 hr ft2°F/Btu) is adequate for most condi- tions (4,82,85,36,97). The bianket should consist of a, layer of closed-cell polystyrene foam with another pro- tective layer of plastic fim. Additional blankets may be necessary for temperatures below about 4°C (40°F). Figure 8 shows how effective insulating blankets are in maintaining the temperature of concrete compared to an exposed surface of the same mix. Sawing Window — The sawing window is a short period after placement when the conerete can be cut successfully before it cracks, The window begins when concrete strength is acceptable for joint cutting without excessive raveling along the cut. The window ‘showing effectiveness of insulating blankets. ‘ends when significant concrete shrinkage occurs and induces uncontrolled cracking. Uncontrolled cracking has not been a problem on fast- track concrete pavements because sawing can usually bbe done while the concrete temperature is stil high from hydration and insulation. However, contractors, and inspectors should be aware of the factors that influence the sawing window, end in particular, differ- ‘ential shrinkage and thermal shock that may bring about rapid shrinkage. Internal concrete temperature and moisture also influ: ence the time available for joint sawing. Concrete tem- perature directly relates to the strenath of conerete, which controls the ability to commence sawing. Under warm sunny summer conditions, the maximum con- crete temperature will vary depending on when the concrete is placed during the day. Concrete placed in early moing will often reach higher maximum tem- peratures than late morning or afternoon conerete 13 because it receives more radiant heat (Figure 9). As a result, the morning concrete will generally have a shorter sawing window. ‘The sawing must be complete before significant con- crete shrinkage. For fast-track concrete itis preferable to complete sawing before the temperature begins to moderate after initial set. Drying shrinkage partialy ‘occurs from moisture loss through hydration and mois- ture loss to the environment (39). Thermal contraction, begins when the concrete temperature falls. so rf “s ® e 10 i i g g 5 5 : cai : =f te a 20 T a 300 7200 «00 600 200 400 Can pa) Time Sve ementnpentinen cfehba pancho times of the day; Type I cement; no blankets (38) After the concrete sets, uncontrolled cracking might ‘occur when conditions induce differential concrete shrinkage (32). Differential shrinkage is a result of tom- perature differences throughout the pavernent depth, Normally, the concrete surface temperature drops before the temperature at mid-depth or bottom (Figure 10). The temperature at mid-depth usually remains ‘warm for the longest period. Research indicates that a drop from maximum surface temperature more than 9.5°G (15°F) can result in excessive surface shrinkage and induce cracking (40). This is critical in most regions during the spring and fall because air temperature often drops significantly from. day to night. Differential shrinkage also occurs from. rainshowers that cool the slab surface. Therefore, itis important for the contractor to monitor the weather land saw control joints, as soon as possible, when conditions change from that during placement. 14 Thermal shock also may occur within a few hours after removing curing blankets from a new slab. It may be necessary to remove only the blankets needed to allow joint sawing. Blankets should not be completely removed until after completion of all sawing to elimi- nate uncontrolled cracking from thermal shock, “Temperature, Temperature, Ore 1 1:00 5:00 8:00 4:00 5:00:00, or Time Figure 10. Time temperature plat from fast-track project using Type Il cement and curing blankets. Plastic Shrinkage — The temperatures of fast- track mixes often exceed air temperature and require special attention to avoid plastic shrinkage cracking. Plastic shrinkage cracks can form after concrete placement when certain prevailing environmental con- ditions exist. The principal cause of plastic shrinkage cracking is rapid evaporation of water from the slab surface (2). When this occurs while concrete is in a plastic or semi-plastic state, it will result in shrinkage at the surface. Air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity and concrete temperature influence the rate of evaporation. The tendency for rapid evaporation increases when concrete temperature exceeds air temperature (32). ‘Several ways to moderate the environment and coo! concrete components to slow evaporation are: @ to pave during the evening or nighttime. to water mist aggregate stockpiles and sub- base before paving. © to.use an evaporative retardant (monomolecu- lar compound) on ths surface. Using Figure 11 it is possible to estimate evaporation (41). When the evaporation rate exceeds 1.0 ka/m?/nr (0.2 lo/f2/m) plastic shrinkage cracking is likely. AS a ‘Ar Temperature, °F % 60 70 80 9 100 Relative Hum, 3 a 45 2025 3 35] Air Temperature," Figure 11. Chart to estimate evaporation rate under prevaling nvrorenta an concrete temperate condone ai), precaution itis advisable to closely monitor and adjust field curing practice if the evaporation rate exceeds 0.5 kg/m /pr (0.1 tb/tt2/hr), Jointing & Sealing — ‘The typical time sequence for joint sawing and sealing is not compatible with rapid strength gain and early ‘opening to traffic. Rapid strength gain reduces the ‘time for sawing (sawing window). The contractor must be conscious that sawing is necessary much sooner after paving then with normal concrete. To meet pub~ lic trafic opening requirements, it also may be neces- sary 10 Seal the reservoir sooner and require special consideration of sealant materials. Sawing — Light saws which handle easily and are more versatile will generally be more effective for fast- track projects. Often the curing blankets are in place before sawing and the saw crew must move the blan- kets aside at the location of each joint. To decide when to begin sawing any concrete pave- ‘ment requires some experience and judgment; sawing too late could lead to uncontrolled cracking in some cases. The quality of saw cut will vary with concrete strength. Excessive spalling and raveling along the joint face will result if the sawing is too soon. Slight raveling is acceptable if a second saw cut will be made to form a sealant reservoir. Weather (tempera- ture, wind, humidity and direct sunlight) has a largo influence on concrete strength gain and the optimal time to begin sawing. ‘Some design factors also influence the optimal time to begin sawing. Subbase or subgrade friction wil restrain shrinkage as the concrete cools afer final set. ‘The high-friction surface of asphalt or cement-stabi- lized subbases decrease the time allowable before sawing is necessary. in some extreme cases, bond between the surface and subbase have induced cracking before sawing was possible without unac- ceptable raveling. Fill-in lanes for airport pavernents and parking areas also tend to have a shorter time for joint sawing due to edge restraint. Granular subbases and subgrade soils provide the least frictional restraint and the longest sawing time. Mixes with sotter limestone aggregates require less strength for sawing than do mixes with harder coarse aggregates. Table 8 shows compressive strengths necessary to begin sawing different mixes for accept- able and excellent results (40). Contractors have successtully cut joints in fast-track construction using wet-sawing, dry-sawing and ultra light sawing equipment (42). It is usually possible to dry-saw conerete slightly earlier than to wet-saw. Dry- sawing also does not require a water flushing for slurry removal and may shorten the drying time necessary before seating. ‘A contractor should choose blade type depending on the hardness of the aggregate in the concrete. Silicon ‘carbide or Carborundum (dry-sawing) blades are only effective for softer aggregates like limestone. Wet-saw diamond blades are acceptable for al types of aggre- gates, and are most advantageous for concrete con- taining hard aggregates. A contractor also may saw through most aggregates without water using certain diamond blades mounted on saws powered by less than 26-kW (85-hp) engines. 15 Table 8. Required compressive strengths necessary to begin sawing using conventional saw equipment (40). Note thatthe rounded soft condition was not measured in the lab study and was developed using @ regression analysis. reed Ce ceca econ tg eae’ Oe Bere (Some raveling)' _| (Almost no raveling)* Shape Hardness | Kg/m® (Ib/yd:) MPa (psi) MPa (psi) 300 (500) 25 (370) 3.9 (660) Crushed Soft 385 (650) 2.2 (20) 3.7 (630) 4752 (800) 4.9 (270) 3.4 (600) 300 (600) 49 (715) 7.0 (1010) Crushed Herc 385 (650) 48 (700) 6.8 (980) 475® (800) 4.7 (685) 6.6 (950) B00 (00) 1.4 (210) 2.5 (360) Rounded Soft 385 (650) 1.0 (150) 2.1 (810) 475° (600) 1.0 (150) 1.8 (260) 300 (500) 33 (480) 49 (710) Rounded Hare 385 (650) 3.4 (450) 48 (690) 475° (800) 2.9 (420) 46 (670) 1, Same raveling present on cut [5640 mmr? (0.84 i) par 7.3m (24 A) of cul], acceptable I another Saw cut will be made fora ‘sealant reservoir. 2. Almost no ravaing present on cut [80 mmr? (0.12 in?) per 7.3m (24 ft) of cut). . Compressive strength criteria extrapolated trom da at 300 and 385 kg/® (500 and 650 ib/ve?) Uttra-light saws allow cutting very early during the initial concrete set stage. Cutting is feasible after com- pressive strengths reach about 1.0 MPa (150 psi) usu- ally about an hour or two after paving. All cutting should be done before the final set of the concrete. Most currently available ultra-light saws provide only a shallow initial cut at about 25 to 33 mm deep (1 to 1.5 in) and require a second cut using a standard saw for a sealant reservoir or to mest typical D/S or D/4 cut depth specifications. However, using ultra-light equip- ment can allow cutting before curing blanket place- ment and can be effective for fast-track projects. Step cut blades also are available to allow sawing the joint seal reservoir and depth-cut at the same time, This eliminates the time necessary for a second cut to form the joint seal reservoir. Sealing — Joint sealing should begin when practica: ble after sawing is complete. Normally iquid sealant manufacturers recommend delaying instalation for a considerable moisture-free period. However, most sealant manufacturers also provide recommendations for use of their product in fast-track construction. The rapid strength gain and low water-cement-plus-poz~ zolan ratio of fast-track concrete reduce excess mois- ture on the side walls of the joint reservoirs. This allows sealing earlier than with standard concrete. 16 ‘Therefore itis important to always consult the sealant manufacturer's particular product recommendations. Cleaning is the most important aspect of joint sealing for a liquid sealant (43). Every liquid sealant manufac- turer requires essentially the same cleaning proce- dures. Likewise the performance claims of any liquid sealant product is predicated on those cleaning proce- dures. Cleaning is not as critical for compression seals. Cleaning operations wil vary depending on the saw blade type. Reservoir faces require a thorough olean- ing to be sure of good sealant adhesion and long-term performance. Proper cleaning after wet sawing requires mechanical action and pure water flushing to remove contaminants. Dry sawing requires only an air blowing operation to remove particulate residue from the joint reservoir. This can produce considerable cust and may be inadvisable in urban areas. Preformed seals are not sensitive to dirt or moisture on side walls and may allow sealing earlier than any liquid sealant. However, on one fast-track project a low- modulus rubber sealant sufficiently adhered to the reservoir faces within eight hours after paving (42). Silicone sealants also have been used for fast-track projects, Reference 43 provides more information on joint sealants and sealing procedures. Table 9. ‘Non-destructive test methods for concrete (40,44). TEST METHOD STANDARD ES Deuter Bae Bean ens Buica cua Surface Hardness ‘ASTM C805, Rebound of hammer correlates 440% (Swiss Hammer) (se0 ref. 47) to surface hardness & compressive strength Penetration Resistance ‘ASTM C803 Penetration depth of gun-fred 420% (Windsor Probe) (s0e ref. 48) probe correlates to surface hardness & comprossive strength Pullout? ‘ASTM C900 Force to remove cast-in metal +15% (see ref. 49) probe correlates to surface compressive strength Break-off ASTM C1150 Force necessary to break a circular 115% (see ref. 50) Coote cast or cut paral into siab correlates to flexural strength Maturity ASTM C 1074 Internal temperature of concrete 25% (see ref. 46) relates directly to concrete strenath Pulse Velocity ASTM C597 Velocity of sound wave from 10% (see ref. 51) transducer to receiver through concrete relates to concrete strength 'Gap ana put-out (CAPO) variation of pul-out test not approved by ASTM. ‘are estimates of precision based on cyinder strength fests made using recommended ASTM procedures. Inaccurate concrete strengin characterization by destructive cyinder testing is a common problem. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ‘Some agencies, consultants and contractors use non- destructive testing to adequately determine strength at early ages. Table 9 describes six non-destructive test methods for concrete. Maturity and pulse velocity testing are common for predicting strengths on fast- track concrete pavement projects. Maturity — Maturity testing provides strength evalu- ation through monitoring of internal concrete tempera- ture in the field. The basis of maturity is that each con- crete mix has a unique strength-time relationship (82,40,44,45). Therefore, a mix will have the same. strength at a given maturity no matter what conditions (time or temperature) occur before measurement, There are two methods for computing maturity. The first method is the Nurse-Saul method that calculates the time-temperature factor using the following equation Mi) = (Ta-To) at M{) = temperature-time factor, degree-days or degree-hours, ‘At = time interval, days or hours Ta= average concrete temperature during time interval, °C To= datum temperature, °C: [typically 10°C (14°F)] ‘The second method uses the Arrhenius maturity equa- tion and is less common for concrete pavement work in the United States (45). More information is available in ASTM G 1074 (reference 46) and references 32 and 45, ‘Thorough laboratory testing is necessary before a ‘technician can accurately analyze concrete in the field, Laboratory testing requires preparation of trial batches, Using the actual field mix materials. Technicians must monitor the batch temperature and break cylinders to develop a relationship between the strength criterion, ‘and the temperature-time factor (Figure 12). This rela- 17 « By = 38 sto = _ ol ‘00 En £ i Z F woe] |e, é i HE ea 8 2000 Be z 3 q e 3 8 / 2000 g é ‘ bo : i wo E a 100 & 2 5 8 0 0 eee 0 0 100 200 a0 400 ov 26 8 wt Temperatue-Time Factor (1000 ts) SEeEEr EE Ted LT re Eee Faure 12, Typical pot om maturity data per ASTM (4) tionship becomes the calibration curve for evaluating the field concrete strength. Field maturity evaluation begins with embedment of thermocouples or temperature probes in the concrete when practicable after finishing and curing. Positioning the temperature probes along the project requires fore- thought to ensure they are in areas of critical impor- tance for joint sawing and opening to traffic. The probes must connect to either commercially available maturity meters or temperature recorders with an accuracy to 1°C (2°F) (45). Technicians take readings at regular intervals then estimate strength using the temperature-time relationship from the laboratory study. Pulse-Velocity — Pulse-velocity is another available non-destructive test for determining concrete strength at early ages. It is a true non-destructive test that measures the time required for an ultrasonic wave to pass through concrete from one transducer to another. ‘The velocity of the wave correlates to concrete strength or stiffness (32,44). Like maturity testing, pulse-velocity testing requires laboratory calibration to produce meaningful field infor- mation. Pulse-velocity readings are sensitive to aggre- gate, water-cement-plus-pozzolan ratio, moisture con- tent and concrete consolidation. Therefore trial batch- es must contain the same mix materials at similar pro- portions as the project mix. In the laboratory, techni- clans take pulse-velocity measurements through a rep- resentative number of cast concrete specimens, test the specimens for strength, and plot the results 18 Pulse Velocity (1000 m/s) Figure 13. Typical plot ror pulse-veloaty data (40). against the pulse-velocity readings to create a calibra~ tion curve (Figure 13), Field measurement of pulse velocity is relatively simple. ‘Technicians hold the sending and receiving transduc- ers flush to the pavement surface. Sometimes it may be necessary to grind a rough surface, but usually a layer of grease or jelly will surficiently fil surface voids and provide full transducer contact. Optimal readings occur with the transducers held axially for direct mea- surement, but this arrangement usually requires cast-in box out in the siab, An acceptable alternative is to hold the transducers in a perpendicular arrange- ‘ment providing a semi-direct measurement (Figure 14). Comparing field puise-velocity reacings to the calibra- tion curve provides an early-age estimate of concrete Figure 14, ‘Semi-crect pulse-velocty testing. strength. However it is necessary to study the manu- facturer's equipment instructions for specific recom- mendations and to make reading corrections neces- sary for concrete temperature and moisture content (@2,44), To avoid inaccurate measurements, take readings away from any embedded steel that will dis- rupt travel of the ultrasonic pulses. TRAFFIC OPENING ‘The ultimate factor in fast-track construction is deter- mining when traffic can begin to use the new pavement. ‘The basis for this decision should be made on the con- crete strength and not arbitrarily on the time from place- ment (52). Strength directly relates to load carrying capacity and provides certainty that the pavement is ready to accept loads by construction or public tratfic, For most concrete pavement applications, flexural strength is the most appropriate structural strength cri- terion to evaluate load capacity. Flexural strength val- ues provide an assessment of the tensile strength at the bottom of the slab where wheel loads induce ten- sile stresses. For that reason, this document lists opening criteria in third-point flexural strengths, However, flexural strength tests from ASTM C 78 are very sensitive to the test beams and testing proce- dures (53). Many agencies realize this shortcoming land use the more consistent compressive strength test (ASTM C 39) to evaluate concrete for acceptance and opening (54). To use the flexural strength opening criteria in this pub- lication, it may be necessary to develop a correlation between compressive strength and flexural strength in the laboratory for each unique mix. The following equation converts compressive strength to third-point flexural strength (65). t= C-ForP?> Where: flexural strength (modulus of rupture) in third-point loading, MPa (psi. form required average compressive strength, MPa (psi, A constant between & and 10 for normal mixtures ffor high-strength concrete C ranges from 7.5 to 12 (11.7, recommended)]. Note: It also may be necessary to convert strengths from maturity or other non-destructive tests to use the opening criteria in this publication. ‘The strength necessary to allow vehicles onto a new pavement will depend on the following factors (52): Type, weight and number of anticipated loads during early-age period + Location of loads on slab Concrete Modulus of Elasticity @ Pavernent design (new construction, unbonded overlay, bonded overlay or overlay on asphalt) + Slab thickness ‘# Foundation support (Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, k) ‘@ Edige support condition (widened lane or tied curb & gutter or tied concrete shoulder) As slab support or pavement thickness increase, stress in the concrete will decrease for a given load. This relationship allows different opening strength crite- ria for different pavement designs and early trafic. loads (40,52). An opening strength as low as 1.0 MPa (150 psi) in third-point loading is acceptable if the Pavement will cary only automobiles (40). If the pave~ ment will cary trucks, a strength of up to 4.5 MPa, (650 psi) may be necessary for thin slabs (40,52). ‘Whee! load location also influences the magnitude of stress. Critical flexural stresses occur from wheels that ride directly on the pavement edge away from a slab corner. Wheel loads that ride near the center of the slab induce considerably lower stresses. Two tratfic categories exist for early opening assess- ment: construction and public traffic. In most cases the construction contractor's vehicles use the pave- ment before any public trafic, however, this may not bbe typical for fast-track projects. tis important to keep traffic off the pavement until after joint sawing so not to over-stress the concrete and induce uncon- trolled cracking, Construction Traffic — ‘Typical construction vehicles include span saws, haul trucks and water trucks. Except for slabs less than 175 mm (7.0 in) thick, span saws do not induce con- corote fatigue even during very early ages. The 80 kN (18,000 1b) single-axles and 151 kN (34,000 Ib) tan- dem axles (TAL) on the construction trucks induce much higher stresses and can fatigue the concrete. 19 Table 10. Flexural strenath requirements for opening conorete pavements to use by construction trafic. Span saws criteria lows 0.5 porcent fatigue consumption. Truck axle criteria alows 1.0 percent fatigue consumption (2). REQUIRED FLEXURAL STRENGTH FOR OPENING, MPa (p: Siab Foundation ‘To Support ‘To Support Legal 151 KN (84,000 Ib) Thickness | Support, k Span Saw Loads* Tandem Axle Loads mm MPaim MPa (ps) ) (osvin) MPa (psi) ‘50 loads 27.2 (100) 1.5 (210) 32 (460) 160 (6.0) | 543 (200) 1.3. (190) 27 (390) 135_(600) 0.8 (100) 2.0 (900) 27.2 (100) 1.3 (190) 2.7 (890) 165 65) | 543 (200) 1.1 (160) 2.4 (850) 135_ (600) 150 2.4 (300) 27.2 (100) (340) 175 (7.0) | 543 (200) ‘so sien | fie * For concrete pavements more than 150 mm (6.0 i) thick. span saws cause no fatigue when the modulus of rupture exceeds 1.0¢MPa (150), the practical minimum for sawing operaions (40,62) Fortunately, operators tend to drive these vehicles within the center of new slabs to avoid drop-offs that exist before shoulder placement or final grading. Table 10 provides opening criteria for span saw and truck loads and assumes that these loads will occur at least 0.6 m (2.0 ft} from the edge of the slab. Public Traffic — Public tratfic includes many different vehicles. To deter- mine the acceptable opening strength for public traffic requires an estimate of the number of loads before the concrete reaches design strength (52) ‘A table of public traffic opening criterion for municipal and highway pavements is found in Appendix A. To use the table requires estimates of trafic volume, slab thickness and foundation support. The table assumes 0.6 m (2.0 fi offset of trafic from the lane edge. Wide truck lanes, tied concrete shoulders and curb and gutter all serve to reduce load stresses to levels equivalent of a 0.6 m (2.0 fi traffic offset. Ifthe pave- ment design does not include these features, the con- tractor can place barricades to prevent edge loads. Normally after the concrete flexural strength reaches, 8.0 MPa (450 psi) the contractor may remove the bar- ricades. However, it may be necessary to wait for concrete to gain full design strength on thin municipal pavements that require more than 4.5 MPa (650 psi) flexural strength tor opening. Appendix A provides an ‘example calculation 20 Aircraft Traffic — ‘No studies have been made to determine early-age opening criteria for aircraft traffic. The Federal Aviation ‘Administration's current specifications alow opening to traffic at 3.8 MPa (550 psi) flexural strength with no time limitation (56) ACTUAL PROJECT MIXES ‘There is no limit to the combination of materials possi- ble for producing fast-track concrete, Table 11 indi- ‘cates the concrete mix proportions from fourteen fast- track projects. Figure 15 shows the flexural strength of these mixes for the first 24 hours and through 28 days after placement, The development of the mixes found in the table was with locally available materials at the time of construction - it is important to use a prop- er series of tests to evaluate and qualify mixes for all new projects, Table 11 also provides construction and environmental information on each listed project. The projects used a variety of placement methods, sawing equipment and curing measures. These methods were considered successful in construction of the projects. The time ‘that each mix met the opening strength criterion is found in the last column of the table; many projects actually met the specified opening strength in less than 12 hours. “BOP eIqEIEAE Wop PE}EILLB}U) (QUO pip exe 221 u si09fo10 so4po (fe 10} wBveNs jesnxey) inBUENS enxey ywodeIUED & “ezis wnuxew (uy 20) wi 6 [(e2A/A1 $88) eLU/By r'LOP] Xu UI Ose eas ejeBeuBBe Ou) 5 “@UOTS ZG'ON OLHSYV [(EP// SUU/OH 6'68F] XI UI Osfe 2218 812Be1668 Pull, “‘UOREDBIE EUO}S FON .LHSYV p “SeraIS 91 #-Pi UO PELIBJA! JUBC480 ABUIU O} UAL. 7[eP//Q] 98) eWU/BY 6086) Xiu UI Ose 22s 28/668 pity, & HOM UO}DeSIAILI PUB XIU 18S 11S} JO} 8/2 SIEIEP - pBEdS 12S Perse UO BuIPUEGAP }98/01d 247 UO SaQ}049 XU YO2M ISB} ON DEY J0}DeIIUOD © ipa a reson] Ue) [roves son oo) ew) spent a moivecion| ae at wait | son | seo | ver | 1 fom] “mevmouversn| wm w a ‘0 wis) 2N vos ‘srewyna| VN. fs wes | wm | cro] coe | un | aa | tennant aan] et ia) a yncgini! wan) ‘oo yyvauoeany onsen] “Sa owo | is | 1 [ow] smoomercius| 2 MrT ” vom oa team pocuma am] _YN, sevo | ee |u| ze | vosmaseat mm} os o snow utara exo muoitecam| WN. oo nwo] rorpense | o: ye'tireg 28 wosentuog] (ued) moumann| te 1 |e | somomsceremees| wxseaung] (08) (oo tae ecu Casati (ee ery ste hiosety| (ee sop ot HONSUOD ‘SUOMOdaI KY *L | OIGEL 24 Flexural Strength (MPa) “ Project Project? + Projects Projects + Projects 6 2 18 Hours Aftor Placoment -e8e88e 8 4 i) Flexural Strength ( Flexural Strength (MPa) Hours After Placement Flexural Strength (psi) Flexural Strength (MPa) 700 400 200 100 zg a Flexural Strength (MF 1 300 4.200 4,100 4,000 + pt ee 100 00 =n | Lon erat | et aromas | [5 20 100 of 4 +0 ° 6 2 8 4 © 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Hours Aftr Placement Hours After Placement € ° 1.300 200 . 4200 5 ee 4,400 es ie es 000 i. 3) |e fe g = —-——— a é Hie a == $ —— = 700 §, : 3 4005 gs 600 8 & wos Bo projets | |-300 § Es sommes | [53 § g + Project 14 i z + Prof 2 G = + Prieta | [200 Ee [pies | Fao & 1 | xprmetts | | 99 200 ana 4 400 ° +o ° te 0 6 2 8 24 © 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Hours After Placement Hours After Placement Fue 16. Floaral strengths of mies shown Table 10 during fest 24 hours and through 672 hours (28 daye) after placamont 22 SUMMARY Fast-track is being done successfully forall types of conerete pavernent. To use fast-track techniques will require some changes by the agency and contractor to traditional methods and materials. However, the changes are not significant and the materials are reac- ly available. Panning is a key ingredient to make fast-track con- crete pavement techniques successful. The agency and contractor will ind that high-quality work is possi- ble with minimal traffic disruption. Partnering arrange- ments can enable both contractor and agency workers to focus on project goals and make timely decisions that help keep construction moving. ‘Specification changes that expand contractor con- struction and equipment choices wil also result in sig- nificant time savings during construction. Modern equipment is available to consolidate construction ‘operations. End-result specifications provide freedom to the contractor to employ this equipment, and to use more than one concrete mix to meet different con- struction needs within a project. ‘There are many options for mix proportioning and material usage that will produce concrete that gains strength rapidly and decreases pavement closure time, Its possible to proportion fast-track mixes using local- ly available cements, additives, admixtures and aggre- gates. Under certain conditions curing and sawing of fast- track concrete can require special attention. In lower air temperatures, curing blankets are necessary to pro- vide the moisture and heat retention necessary to fuel hydration during the early strength gain period. Itis preferable to saw joints in fast-track concrete before the concrete temperature begins to fal. Light saws which handle easily and are more versatile will generally be more useful to maneuver around in-place curing biankets. Non-destructive testing provides information to field ‘engineers that they can use to adjust curing measures in order to influence the rate of strength development, and to determine when concrete is ready for sawing or ‘opening to traffic. This is particularly useful on fast- track projects where opening to traffic is the ultimate goal. Available opening strength criteria directly relates to conerete pavement load carrying capacity and should provide certainty that a pavement is ready to accept loads, Maturity and pulse velocity testing are common for predicting strengths on fast-track concrete pavement projects. Field measurements using either method are relatively simple, but both require laboratory calibration to produce meaningful field information. Fast-track concrete pavements are proven to: + Allow engineers to consider concrete for projects thought unfeasible because of lengthy concrete cure-times. + Perform under many diferent trafic and applica- tion conditions. ¢ Expedite construction and ease work zone con-

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