RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS & NOZZLES

D.A DUBE 217000980

MARCH 28, 2023

 D.A DUBE 217000980

RESULT%

Student number: 2 1 7 0 0 0 9 8 0

Surname and initials: D.A DUBE

Programme: BEngTech (Mechanical Engineering)

Module name: THERMAL SCIENCE III

Module code: M T S 3 1 A
RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS &
Title of the Practical work
NOZZLES

Practical work number: 1

Due date: 2 0 2 3 0 3 2 8

Lecturer: MR OY ODUFUWA

DECLARATION OF OWN WORK:

I, David Anold Dube
______________________________________________________________, student
217000980
number______________________________________, hereby declare that the content of this
assignment/project is my own work, as defined and constituted in the Rules and Regulations of the
Central University of Technology, Free State (Please consult the Programme Guide of the Department).

Signed: ________________________________
Date: 28 March, 2023
________________________________

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Table of Contents
Aim .................................................................................................................................... 4
Apparatus .......................................................................................................................... 4
Procedure.......................................................................................................................... 5
Theory ............................................................................................................................... 6
Results Obtained ............................................................................................................... 8
Calculations Part A ............................................................................................................ 9
Tabulated Results ........................................................................................................... 14
Conclusion Part A ............................................................................................................ 15
Nozzles Part B................................................................................................................. 16
Calculations Part B .......................................................................................................... 17
Evidence ......................................................................................................................... 18
Graph .............................................................................................................................. 19
Conclusion Part B ............................................................................................................ 20
References ...................................................................................................................... 20

List of Figures
Figure 1……………………..…………………………………………………………………………4
Figure 2…………………..…………………………………………………………………………. ..4
Figure 3………………..……………………………………………………………………….…..….7
Figure 4……………..…………………………………………………………………………………7
Figure 5…………………..………………………………………………………………………. ....16
Figure 6…………..…………………………………………………………………………….…….18
Figure 7………..……………………………………………………………………………………..18
Figure 8……..……………………………………………………………………………………... ..18
Figure 9.………………………………………………………………….…………….…..………...18
Figure 10…..………………………………………………………………………………………. ..18
Figure 11…………………………..………………………………………………………….…..….19

List of Tables
Table 1…………………………………………………………………………………………………8
Table 2………………………………………………………………………………………….…….13
Table 3………………………………………………………………………………………………..13
Table 4………………………………………………………………………………………………..13
Table 5...…………….………………………………………………………………………….……14

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Table 6.…………………………………………...……………………………………………..….. 14
Table 7………………………………………………………………………………………………..14
Table 8.……………………………………………………………………………………….………14
Table 9………………………………………………………………………………………………..19

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Aim
To get accustomed with the practical use of air compressors and compare it with a
theoretical & ideal case.

Apparatus

Figure:1 Picture of Apparatus

Figure:2 Picture of Apparatus

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D.A DUBE 217000980

A Two-stage reciprocating air-compressor, with inlet and outlet air tanks (reservoirs)
on top, is shown in the photo below. The inter-cooling tubes are situated behind the
compressor, in the path of the cooling fan air, while an intermediate air tank is
positioned at the base of the stand. Pressure gauges and thermocouples are
connected to the various inlet- and outlet ports of the 2 compressor stages. The
compressor is belt-driven by an external electric motor. All the electronically
measured values of pressure and temperature are sent to an external computer (not
supplied) via a computer interface cable.

Procedure
• Before turning on the main power supply, connect the computer interface
cable to all necessary data acquisition equipment.
• Learn the precise locations of the air flow path through the two compressor
stages, as well as the electronic pressure, temperature, and mass flow
sensors.
• Use the On Off switch on the control panel to start the electric motor. Track
the increase in pressure using the manual pressure gauges until the second
stage's safety pressure relief valve opens.
• Allow the system to stabilize for about 2 minutes before using the connected
computer to acquire the pertinent measured data.
• Give the computer program 1.5 minutes to collect data from the compressor.
The computer program will automatically determine the average value for
each point that was measured. When satisfied with the data, print out the data
report sheet and switch off the compressor motor on the control panel?

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Theory
Multi-stage compressors can be two or three stages, and they can be piston or rotary
screw. Both types of multi-stage compressors operate on the same basic principles.

Atmospheric air enters the compressor air end and is compressed by the pistons or
rotors for one full cycle.

• Following that, the air is cooled in an intercooler.

• This allows moisture to escape and keeps the compressor from overheating.
• The cooled, compressed air then enters a second set of pistons or rotors for
another stage of compression.
• The process is repeated for a three-stage (or even four-stage) air compressor.

With each compression stage, the air is squeezed into a smaller and smaller space,
resulting in increasing pressures (measured in pounds per square inch, or PSI). A
multi-stage compressor can produce more PSI than a single-stage compressor. A
dual-stage air compressor can produce pressures of up to 1206.58 KPa, whereas
specialty high-pressure air compressors (3-stage or 4-stage) can produce pressures
ranging from 14000 to 42000 KPa for breathing air and other applications. A multistage
industrial air compressor is more commonly used to deliver more air (in Cubic metre
per Minute) at standard working pressures.

Applications with Multi-Stage Compressors

Multi-stage compressors are a good option if you:

Use a lot of air on a regular basis and/or require pressures greater than 690.00 kPa.
Multiple-stage compressors are more commonly found in models with 100 HP or
higher horsepower. They are not always used to deliver high pressures; instead, they
are commonly used to deliver more CFM at standard working pressures. Multi-stage
compressors are common in industrial applications that require a large amount of air
at typical plant pressures of 690.000 – 828.000 kPa such as automotive
manufacturing, general manufacturing, chemical production, and the energy sector.

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D.A DUBE 217000980

The diagram below depicts an indicator diagram for a two-stage machine. The
delivery process from the first or LP stage and the induction process from the second
or HP stage are assumed to be at the same pressure in this diagram.

Figure:3 PV for 2 Stage Machine

When a gas is compressed isothermally, work is done on the system to reduce

volume and increase pressure. Working on the gas increases its internal energy and
tends to raise its temperature. To keep the temperature constant, energy must leave
the system as heat and enter the environment. Only continuous ideal cooling allows
for ideal isothermal compression. Obtaining this during normal compression is
difficult. With multistage compression, the gas can be cooled while being transferred
from one cylinder to the next by passing it through an intercooler. If intercooling is
complete, the gas will enter the second stage at the same temperature as it did the
first. The figure below depicts the labour savings achieved by intercooling. Because
there is a small pressure drop between the cylinders, this does not happen in a real
machine. To cool the gas after the delivery process, an after-cooler can be installed.

Figure:4 PV Stage 2 Intercooling

The theoretically the formulas that can be used to calculate the work done, the
temperature, the volume, the Power, and the pressure at different stages using these
equations:

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Results Obtained
Table :1

Stage Cycle Volume (cm3) Pressure Bar Temperature Deg (oC)

kPa Kelvin
Stage 1- V1 321.4 P1 0.9 87 T1 22 295
Start 1
Compressio
n
Stage 1- V2X 67.34 P2X 5.0 505 T2X 88 361
End
Compressio
n
Stage 2- V2 56.30 P2 5.0 505 T2 29 302
Start
Compressio
n
Stage 2- V3 37.88 P3 8.0 804 T3 50 324
End
Compressio
n
Stage 2- V4 2.65 P4 8.0 804 T4 50 324
End
Delivery
Stage 2- V5 3.93 P5 5.0 505 T5 29 302
Start Intake
Stage 1- V6 3.81 P6 5.0 505 T6 88 361
End
Delivery
Stage 1- V7 18.19 P7 0.9 87 T7 22 295
Start Intake

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Calculations Part A
Stage 1

𝑇2𝑥 𝑃2𝑥 𝑛−1

=( ) 𝑛
𝑇1 𝑃1
361 5.05 𝑛−1
=( ) 𝑛
295 0.9
361 𝑛−1 5.05
ln( )= × ln( )
295 𝑛 0.9
𝑛 1
0.20190 = − × 1.71479
𝑛 𝑛
1
0.1170611 = 1 −
𝑛
1
0.882938 =
𝑛
0.882938 × 𝑛 = 1
1
𝑛= = 1.1325
0.882938
Stage 2

𝑇3 𝑃3 𝑚−1
=( ) 𝑚
𝑇2 𝑃2
323 8.0 𝑚−1
=( ) 𝑚
302 5.0
323 𝑚−1 8.04
ln( )= × ln( )
302 𝑚 5.05
𝑚 1
0.067225 = − × 0.47000
𝑚 𝑚
1
0.143031 = 1 −
𝑚
1
0.856968 =
𝑚
0.856968 × 𝑚 = 1

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D.A DUBE 217000980

1
𝑚= = 1.16690
0.856968
Induced Volume
Stage 1: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 = 321.41 − 2.65 = 318.76 × 10−3 𝑚3
Stage 2: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉4 = 56.30 − 2.65 = 53.65 × 10−3 𝑚3

Indicated power.
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑁 𝑃2𝑟 𝑛
Stage 1:𝐼𝑃 = × 𝑃1 𝑉1 × × [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 2×60 𝑃1
1.1325−1
1.1325 1440 505 1.1325
𝐼𝑃 = × 87 × 103 × 321.41 × 10−6 × × [( ) − 1]
1.1325 − 1 2 × 60 87
= 2868.0202 × 0.22845
= 655.2168 𝑤 𝑜𝑟 0.6552168 𝐾𝑤

𝑚−1
𝑚 𝑁 𝑃3 𝑚
Stage 2:𝐼𝑃 = × 𝑃2 𝑉2 × × [( ) − 1]
𝑚−1 2×60 𝑃 2

1.16690−1
1.16690 1440 804 1.16690
𝐼𝑃 = × 505 × 103 × 56.3 × 10−6 × × [( ) − 1]
1.16690 − 1 2 × 60 505
= 2385.3841 × 0.06877
= 164.0572 𝑤 𝑜𝑟 0.1640572 𝐾𝑤

Total Indicated Power

𝐼𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑃1 + 𝐼𝑃2 = 0.6552168 + 0.1640572 = 0.819274 𝐾𝑤

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑁 𝑃3 2𝑛
𝐼𝑃 = 2 × × 𝑃1 𝑉1 × × [( ) − 1]
𝑛−1 2 × 60 𝑃2
1.1325−1
1.1325 1440 804 2×1.1325
𝐼𝑃 = 2 × × 87 × 103 × 321.41 × 10−6 × × [( ) − 1]
1.1325 − 1 2 × 60 505
= 5736.040533 × 0.027577
= 158.18278 𝑤 𝑜𝑟 0.1581827 𝐾𝑤

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D.A DUBE 217000980

𝑃2𝑥 × 𝑉2𝑥 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2𝑥

505 × 103 × 67.34 × 10−6 = 𝑚̇ × 0.287 × 361
34.0067
∴𝑚= = 0.32822 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔
103.607
𝑚 0.328227
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = −6
= 4.874 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
𝑉 67.34 × 10

Mass flow Rate

𝜋 × (9 × 10−3 )2
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝛼𝑣 = 4.874 × × 15.02 = 4.651224 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠
4

𝑄𝐼 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝(𝑇3 − 𝑇2𝑥 ) = 4.651224 × 10−3 × 1.003 × (324 − 361) = −0.17295 𝑘𝑤

Electrical Power
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 220 × 11.45 = 2519 𝑤 𝑜𝑟 2.519 𝑘𝑤
𝑁 1440
𝑓= = = 720 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2 2
FAD
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) = 720(321.41 − 56.30) × 10−6 = 0.19087 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 190.8792 𝐿⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛

Shaft Power
𝑆𝑃 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝜂𝑒𝑚𝑒 = 2.519 × 103 × 0.3 = 2500

Compressor Mechanical Efficiency

0.819274
𝑛𝑖𝑛 = × 100% = 32.77096%
2.5

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Induced Volume

𝑉5 = 3.93 ∴ 0.393 × 0.393 × 10−3 𝑚3

Stage:1 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉7 = (321.41 − 18.19) × 10−3 = 0.30322 × 10−3 𝑚3

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 0.30322
𝜂𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 = = × 100 = 0.77155 × 100 = 77.155%
𝑉5 0.393

𝑉𝑠 = 53.65 ∴ 53.65 × 10−3 𝑚3

Stage:2 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉5 = (56.3 − 3.93) × 10−3 = 0.05237 × 10−3 𝑚3

𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 52.37
𝜂𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 = = × 100 = 0.97614 × 100 = 97.614%
𝑉𝑠 53.65

Volumetric Efficiency
𝜂𝑣2 − 𝜂𝑣1 0.97614 + 0.77155
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100 = × 100 = 87.3845 %
2 2
Isothermal
Stage 1
𝑃2𝑥 505
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑇1 ln( ) = 4.65122 × 10−3 × 287 × 295 ln( ) = 0.69959 𝑘𝑤
𝑃1 87
Stage 2
𝑃3 804
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝑅𝑇2 ln( ) = 4.65122 × 10−3 × 287 × 302 ln( ) = 0.896458 𝑘𝑤
𝑃2 87

Total Isothermal Power

𝐼𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑠𝑜 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 1 + 𝐼𝑠𝑜 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 = 0.69959 + 0.896458 = 1.5960 𝑘𝑤

Isothermal efficiency

𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 1.5960501

𝜂𝐼𝑠𝑜 = × 100% = × 100% = 194.976937%
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 0.819274

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Technical Data

Stage 1 Stage 2

Cylinder Diameter (mm) 76.0 32.0

Stroke Length (mm) 70.0 70.0

Stroke Volume (cm³) 317.6 56.3

% Clearance: Stroke Volume 1.2% 4.7%

Table:2

Dry Air Density (100kPa @ 25°C) 1.169 kg/m³

Air Gas Constant (R) 287.0 J/kg.K

Table:3

Electric Motor Voltage (Volt) 220.0 Volt

80% %
Power Factor - (Electric Motor
Efficiency)

Electric Motor Revolutions 1440.0 RPM

2.0 1
Electric Motor : Compressor -
Drive Ratio

Air Flow - Pipe Diameter (mm) 9.0 mm

Table:4

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Tabulated Results
Polytropic Indexes
Index “n” 1.1325
Index “m” 1.16690
Table:5

Mass Flow rate 4.65122 × 10−3

(Kg/s)
Free Air Delivery 190.8792
(L/min)
Atm. 87.74 kPa &
21.78369
Density (kg/m3) 4.8741
Heat Transfer (Kw) 0.172955
Air fow (m/s) 15.02
Table:6

Powers (Kw)
Stage 1: Indicated 0.655216
Power
Stage 2: Indicated 0.164057
Power
Total Indicated power 0.819274
Table:7

Volumes
Stage 1 Induced Volume 318.76 × 10−3
3
(m )
Stage 2 Induced Volume 53.65 × 10−3
3
(m )
Stage 1 Volumetric 77.155
Efficiency (%)
Stage 2 Volumetric 97.614
Efficiency (%)
Overall Volumetric 87.3845
Efficiency (%)
Table:8

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Conclusion Part A
The goal of this practical assignment is to familiarize ourselves with the operation of
air compressors so that we can compare it to the theoretical, ideal case. It was
anticipated that the theoretical power and the calculation would be less than the sum
of indicated power.

This theory has been shown to be true. Only a few decimals separate the pressure
index or volume index values (n and m), which are somewhat similar. However, due
to a number of factors, including precision errors in the initial readings, human error
in the setting and stabilizing of the pressures, or in the reading of the dials, and
assumptions that are not entirely accurate, such as air density, there is a very small
amount of uncertainty in all the values. Air vapor content; and so on. All in all, the
experiment was successful in providing us with experience operating a two-stage air
compressor with an inter-cooler, as well as allowing us to discover how changing the
pressure affects some act characteristics of the compression, and understanding
why multiple stages and intercooling are more sufficient.

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Nozzles Part B
Each pressure washer has a pump, which is run by an engine, with a set of specs
given by its design. While these are set in stone, a water stream which the pump
creates is not – it is fluid and malleable.

Nozzles are used to change the direction of the water stream, its speed, the
pressure at impact, and the area it covers. As a result, by using different nozzles,
you can drastically change the characteristics of the stream, affecting what they are
and aren't suitable for.

To fully appreciate how and why, we present an extensive explanation at the end of
this article, which should not be considered a mandatory reading, but may be useful
in your future endeavours.
The smaller the angle the stream is spread at, the higher its pressure is upon impact.
Or in simple words, the more powerful it can be.

Figure:5 Types of Nozzles for Power washers

There are typically up to 6 different nozzles available for pressure washers, and each
one has a different opening angle. These are 0°, 15°, 25°, 40°, 65° (soap), and a so-
called Turbo. Each of these nozzles is specifically coloured. Due to such inventions
These nozzles make the use of water which is an important natural resource more
efficient and less wasteful because there are various nozzles for specific/ tailored
uses so it’s easier to pick the right nozzle for the right use and note wastewater
which helps sustain the environment.

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Calculations Part B
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle at 400 kPa and 547˚C with low velocity and exits at
240 m/s. If the isentropic efficiency of the nozzle is 90 percent, determine the exit
temperature and pressure of the air. Using any reasonable software such as EES or
MATLAB, study the effect of varying the nozzle isentropic efficiency from 0.8 to 1.0
on both the exit temperature and pressure of the air and plot the results.
[15]
Using the ideal gas property table for ideal gas: air table A21
𝑘𝑗
𝑇1 = 547 + 273 = 820 𝐾 → ℎ1 = 843.98 → 𝑃𝑟1 = 52.29
𝑘𝑔

̇ − 𝐸̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐸𝑖𝑛 ̇ =0
𝐸𝑖𝑛̇ = 𝐸̇ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
2
𝑉1 𝑉2 2
𝑚̇ (ℎ1 + ) = 𝑚̇ (ℎ2 + )
2 2
𝑉2 2 − 𝑉1 2
ℎ2 = ℎ1 −
2
1𝐾𝑗
2402 − 0 𝑘𝑔
ℎ2 = 843.98 − ×( ) = 815.18 𝑘𝑗⁄𝑘𝑔
2 𝑚2
1000 2
𝑠

Using the ideal gas property table for ideal gas and interpolation: air table A21

𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 793.843 𝐾

From the isentropic efficiency relation:

ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − ℎ1
𝜂𝑁 =
ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
ℎ2𝑠 = ℎ1 + (ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − ℎ1 )/𝜂𝑁
(815.18 − 843.98)
ℎ2𝑠 = 843.98 + = 811.98 𝐾𝑗⁄𝑘𝑔
0.90

Using the ideal gas property table for ideal gas and interpolation: air table A21

811.98 𝐾𝑗⁄𝑘𝑔 → 𝑃𝑟2 = 47.75

Then exit pressure is determined by:

𝑃2 𝑃𝑟2
=
𝑃1 𝑃𝑟1

𝑃𝑟2 47.25
𝑃2 = × 𝑃1 = × 400 × 103 = 347.9749 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑟1 52.59

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Evidence
These pictures of nozzles were taken at Various car washes in the willows such as
Sasol Garage, Lifestyle Car wash, white house Car wash and Moboko Car wash.

Figure:6&7 Nozzles From Sasol Garage & Life Style car wash

Figure:8&9 Nozzles from Moboko Cars wash

Figure:10 nozzle from W.H car wash

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Graph
Exit Temperature Vs Pressuse
800

y = 1.0851x + 415.93
798

796

794
Exit Temperature (K)

792

790

788

786

784
340 342 344 346 348 350 352 354
Pressure (kPa)

Figure:11 Exit Temperature Vs Pressure Graph

Table for Results

Exit 787.2 789.2 793.7 798.8

Temperature
(K)
Pressure 341.6 344.9 348 352.7
(kPa)
Enthalpy 807.98 810.097 811.98 815.18
(Kj/Kg)
Table:9 Table of Calculations

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D.A DUBE 217000980

Conclusion Part B
For my findings I learnt a lot about nozzles associated with power washers and the
types of uses and variations they are. With taking into accountability what use a
nozzle needed.

With my calculations everything went well, and I observed a trend in my graph but to
make sure I added an extra reading with an efficiency of 85% to see the trend better
and I noticed. That the higher the enthalpies the higher the pressure observed
meaning the two values of the graph correlate by being Directly proportional to each
other. For further evidence of this I decided to add a trend line which showed an
increasing gradient with further substantiates my theory in that aspect. But an
interesting aspect that I also observed was that a high Isentropic efficiency the
higher the pressure as well meaning nozzles with high Pressures have equally high
Isentropic efficiency meaning in conjunction with my chosen topic on nozzles that
high pressure washers also have high Isentropic efficiency due to the levels of
pressures that they can generate.

References
• Cengel Y.,Cimbala J.,“Thermodynamics, (2011) An Engineering Approach 8th
edition. Maidenhead: University of Neyvada Reno/North Carolina State
University
• P.W.database (2022) Pressure washer nozzles explained - a comprehensive
guide, Pressure Washer Database. Available at:
https://pressurewasherdb.com/blog/nozzles/ (Accessed: March 28, 2023).

• Multi-Stage Air Compressors: Types and advantages (2018) Fluid. Fluid Air
Dynamics. Available at: https://fluidairedynamics.com/blogs/articles/multi-
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• Pratik (2022) Isothermal compression of ideal gas: Definition, formula, work,

PV and TS diagram [with PDF], Mech Content. Mech Content. Available at:
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2023).

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