The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
Arts therapies in educational settings:
an intercultural encounter
Hilda Wengrower, M.A., DTRI*
Hebrew Univ. & Ministry of Education, P.O.B. 10491, 91104, Jerusalem, Israel
Introduction
The effectiveness and necessity of therapy in a
school setting is no longer contested between school
psychologists and counselors (Prout & Brown, 1999;
Kazdin & Johnson, 1994). A number of analyses of
school-based psychotherapies have all concluded that
the therapies are productive (Brantley, Brantley &
Baer-Barkley, 1996; Prout & DeMartino, 1986; Ka-
zdin & Johnson, 1994; Prout & Prout, 1998; Shecht-
man, 1993). Despite this, there is still very little
written about the use of arts therapies in educational
settings, and there are those who remain skeptical
about its viability. Therapists who work in schools
occasionally feel that they are expected to intervene
as teachers of art, rather than therapists. They feel
that the unique nature of their professional identity
goes unrecognized. They are occasionally confronted
by teachers and school principals who balk at re-
quests for “unusual” work arrangements, such as
class observations and regroupings, that are not al-
ways compatible with the class-organization. These
teachers and principals do not view child observation
as part of the therapeutic workload.
My twenty years of working as a movement ther-
apist, clinical supervisor, and educational counselor
in educational institutions have led me to believe that
both therapists and schools could only benefit from a
reconceptualization regarding the integration of one
with the other.
This needs to be done on two levels: conceptual-
ly–arriving at a general understanding of the partner-
* E-mail address: mshilda@mscc.huji.ac.il (H. Wen-
grower).
0197-4556/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 9 7 - 4 5 5 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 9 1 - 5
ship between the therapists and educators; and prac-
tically–focusing on the strategies and tactics involved
in a successful partnership of this kind.
In this article I approach the issue by defining the
aforementioned partnership as an intercultural en-
counter, with education and therapy seen as distinct
cultures who share certain perspectives about human
beings and the world, but which differ from one
another. The principles of these two cultures are
presented, and proposals are made for bridging the
gaps between them. I also bring forth studies sup-
porting therapeutic work in schools and suggest strat-
egies and tactics useful to both educators and thera-
pists.
Culture
Over the past three decades, the term “culture”
has taken on a very broad meaning, going way be-
yond classic anthropological definitions. Today, the
term refers to a system of meanings shared by a
group of people by virtue of their affiliation and
identification with groups that are defined by ethnic
association, age, sexual identity, sexual preference,
and so forth (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1997). These
affiliations and identifications constitute a culture in a
double sense, in that the aforementioned groups not
only produce an internal culture, they are constructed
within— or by—a culture as well. This perspective
enables us to apply the term “culture” to a profession
itself, and not merely to the organizations in which
the professionals work, as has been the case in the
past (Frost, 1985). In their article, Lefley and Ped-
ersen (1986) also concluded that particular jobs and
110 H. Wengrower / The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
professions could be said to constitute their own
culture.
Geertz (1973) defined culture as a structure of the
meanings of life within a particular community,
wherein people use these meanings to create their
identity, while also establishing their identity from
and within these particular meanings. Culture fosters
identity, common characteristics and language, and
enables the development of interaction. Using this
definition, a profession can be understood as a cul-
ture. Furthermore, if we look at the sociological dis-
course on professions, the idea of culture is perceived
as a defining element. Payne’s “characteristics ap-
proach,” (Payne, 1996) for example, makes the claim
that a central component of a profession is its unique
culture, a feature of which is the claim to a specific
and unique field of knowledge, and the claim of
authority in that field.
The establishment of a professional culture pro-
motes the type of communication found at interna-
tional conferences. Here one can find people from
diverse geographic locations who are able to com-
municate with each other using technical jargon, and
who share similar areas of interest, dilemmas, and
professional literature– be they mathematicians, phy-
sicians, or mental health practitioners.
In this article, the profession of arts therapies and
that of school-based education are defined as differ-
ent cultures. Much has been said and written about
how the central formulizations of psychotherapy and
arts therapies and their basic conceptualizations are
essentially the products of Western culture; more has
been written about their foundation upon a particular
outlook and its attendant norms (on this position
within arts therapies see Dokter, 1995; Lewis, 1997).
According to the definitions provided by Geertz
(1973) and Ariño (1997), culture enables the estab-
lishment of an identity, an outlook, and strategic
means and tactics for thought and action. Following
these criteria, it can be posited that a profession is
thus a culture in and of itself. Abraham (1993) also
brings sources for the idea of a professional culture,
which influences all the people who fulfill profes-
sional roles. She adds that the organizations in which
such roles are performed, carefully maintain that cul-
ture.
Ariño (1997) states that each particular culture
provides four different types of information, of a
comprehensive as well as pragmatic nature:
World outlook and descriptive information: It
says how the world is, what there is and what
there is not, it depicts human beings and reality.
For example, Zen Buddhist culture fosters a pic-
ture of man and the world that is very different
from that fostered by Western, postindustrialist
societies or that of the culture of people living in
the mountainous regions of South America.
Technical information: Each unique culture pro-
vides modes of behavior and tools for problem
solving.
Normative information: Culture creates and trans-
mits values, norms, aims, and restrictions.
Prospective information: It consists of the view of
the future: the dreams, expectations, utopias, and
ideals that people create grow out of culture, but
can also be used to expand it (see also Leledakis,
1995).
Presented below is a brief portrayal of the culture
of therapy, and the culture of school-based education,
according to Ariño (1997). Although both these cul-
tures have shared elements, I would like to focus on
the differences, as they are a cause of the difficulties
met in the intercultural encounter (see Table 1).
Arts therapies as culture
In the culture of therapy, the person and the world
are rife with conflicts and internal contradictions.
Importance is attached to introspection and anxieties.
Therapists see their role as accepting the child as he
is, with all his distress and uniqueness, while at the
same time attempting to accompany him in his pro-
cess of change. Occasionally, emphasis is placed on
the difficulties and on the deficiencies, rather than on
the existing strengths and adaptive compensations
that the child is capable of creating for him.
According to this ontological view, the therapeu-
tic task is accomplished by a bond and a process, the
results of which can sometimes be measured better
qualitatively rather than through quantitative indices.
Each and every session is different, not only between
patients but also during the course of the treatment of
a single individual. Significance is attributed to pri-
vacy, respect for the process, and the patient’s per-
sonal time, and as a result, the need to provide free-
dom of expression and a secluded location. Another
aspect is that the planning is comprehensive and
focuses on defining objectives and less on specific
session designing. Even in short-term therapy, the
patient and the process are allowed to lead them-
selves, although to a lesser degree. To better under-
stand what happened, much thought is invested in
reviewing the sessions, going over the interaction that
was generated, and the emotional involvement of
both patient and therapist. In long-term treatment, the
therapist appears to be passive, and is rarely, if ever,
the initiator, and intervenes only in the wake of the
patient’s actions.
In order to analyze the session and create a certain
 H. Wengrower / The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
Table 1
Emphasis on general and relative differences-comparison and contrast
Emphasis in the therapy culture
The individual or the group
Uniqueness, difference
The child as a complex entity, with opposing motives,
internal conflicts
The therapist accepts; the child expresses his inner world
Deals with uncertainty
Therapist thinks after the session, processing
Process, results are evaluated qualitatively
Thinking, introspection
The interpersonal relationship between therapist-child is a
“tool” used for the entire population of clients
(transference-countertransference)
Thinking about what was done and what took place at the
unconscious level
distance from the powerful emotions that the thera-
pist also experiences during the encounter, he/she
needs to take a break between clients in quiet and
solitude. Clinical supervision is also an important
aspect of the therapist’s professional endeavor, being
used to examine the interpersonal and the technical
aspects of the therapy.
The work of therapists in a school is made harder
by the difficulty in maintaining the basic components
of a clinical setting and climate, such as arranging
appointment times, discretion (with regard to both
other pupils and the school faculty), and a special,
intimate atmosphere. All of these are affected by
changes imposed by the school calendar, which is full
of special events shared by all members of this com-
munity, as well as holidays, trips, and so forth. Some-
times, because of their frequency, such events can
damage the continuity of treatment. Random meet-
ings in the corridor or schoolyard, between the ther-
apist and her young clients, can undermine the fan-
tasies of exclusivity that children often create and
long for.
The culture of school-based education
The school, as a public-governmental institution,
is motivated by principles which may differ and even
conflict with those of therapy. One of the reasons for
this lies in the development of mass education at the
end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centu-
ries (Stone, 1976). State-run schools were institutions
resulting from a liberal ideology. The values of the
Revolution of 1789, which bore the standards of
equality and universality among people and disre-
garded the differences between them, influenced the
development of schools for all. We will not discuss
111
Emphasis in the education culture
The class or the school
Common aspects of the age level, universalism
The pupil as a learning entity, who must respect norms
and be consistent (ego functions, reality principle)
The teacher teaches, makes demands, gives exams;
the pupil is tested, competes for achievement
Definitions and clear concepts
Teacher works on course and lesson planning
Measurable results
Action, pragmatism
The importance of the teacher-pupil relationship is in
reverse proportion to the age of the pupils
Thinking about what was done and what took place on
the conscious level
the issue of whether the state schools actually imple-
ment these values.
This concept, and not only the number of people
served by the institution, directs the school towards
the universal and collective, and the demand that
each individual in the school community meet gen-
eral, common standards. The ideal of the right to
education for all as a criterion outweighs the concept
of the individual and the different. Furthermore, the
state school is the institution used as the central tool
in forming a national identity among those societies
who have placed this objective high on their list of
priorities, from that early period through today. The
desire for a national identity has, up until the 1980s,
been responsible for the emphasis on unification and
similarity between students.
The class serves as the basic (and, one could
almost say, the natural) unit of the school, to such an
extent that it often becomes an important aspect of
the child’s identity; a child is often asked what grade
he’s in rather than how old he is. Even in a school
where there is a clear declaration of concern for the
individual, the weight of the organizational structure
and this basic unit is most important. Therefore, arts
therapists are often asked to respect this structure
when they are faced with the task of creating groups.
This can have a detrimental effect on the child’s
ability to move beyond the fixed role he fills within
the class and threaten his privacy and willingness to
experiment with new roles and experiences.
Another characteristic of the culture of school-
based education, aside from the exceptions and some-
times despite them, is the sense that everyone is
under constant evaluation. “Practitioners spend large
amounts of time designing lessons. . . setting up and
enforcing classroom rules, preparing and administer-
112 H. Wengrower / The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
ing examinations, reporting absences. . . Students. . .
spend inordinate amounts of time. . . taking tests. . . ”
(Zehm & Kottler, 1993, pp. 17–18). All these activ-
ities have the goal of measuring and comparing in-
dividuals or groups with the class/grade level, com-
pete with the standards of excellence in other schools,
and so forth. At the end of a session with the arts
therapist, the transition from one culture to the other
can be confusing for the child.
Sometimes the difficulty in carrying out therapy
in the school framework stems from the essential
difference between the objectives of the school and
the therapy. The former involves inculcating subject
matter, skills, and values, and achieving measurable
results. Considerations of economy and cost effec-
tiveness are an integral part of the thinking that
guides the administrations in charge of the system’s
best interests. Therapy is viewed as “depart[ing] or
detract[ing] from the primary educational mission”
(Kazdin & Johnson, 1994, p. 240).
The complexity, however, does not stop here. The
differences that arise are not only cultural or even
organizational, but are also emotional, and not
merely because of the intercultural component. We
shall deal with this aspect further on.
The intercultural encounter
The school is the stronghold of the culture of
education. The creative arts therapist, or any mental
health practitioner, who comes to work there, is like
a stranger entering a foreign land and constitutes a
minority. As in any case with an encounter between
a minority and a majority stemming from different
cultures, difficulties arise. Psychoanalytical literature
has dealt with this subject, as has social psychology.
For more than a decade now we have been witnessing
the great attention given to the encounter with the
‘other’.
Concerning the arrival of a newcomer to a com-
munity, Grinberg and Grinberg (1989) analyzed Kaf-
ka’s The Castle as a story symbolic of the suspicious
reception a community gives to a professional who
has been invited to come and work there. They base
their interpretation, among others, on Bion (1970),
who analyzed the dynamics that develop within a
group or an institution when faced with a new idea or
the representative of such an idea. The studies made
by Bion (1970), followed by Grinberg and Grinberg
(1989), seem to be appropriate for the intercultural
encounter in general, as well as the specific encounter
under discussion here. Bion (1970) notes that the
presence of a stranger in a community or group can
change its structure, thereby generating a subcon-
scious feeling that the existing cultural identity is
being threatened. In The Castle, the locals berate the
land surveyor who has just arrived, informing him
that he must not forget that he is there at their request.
They tell him he is an outsider and a stranger; that he
has no identity as far as they are concerned; that he is
ignorant of their community and must beware.
Another obstacle of the intercultural encounter is
the lack of effort made to understand or communicate
with the stranger, and the way that differences be-
tween him and the community involve the use of a
local language and excessive reference to names and
events with which the outsider is unfamiliar. Grin-
berg and Grinberg (1989, pp. 81– 86) claim that the
characteristics attributed to the “intruder” (given that
there are those who experience him as such) reinforce
feelings of jealousy and competition, and there is a
chance that a cycle will be created wherein the new
person reacts with hostility, or by not initiating contact.
Bion (1970) notes three possibilities concerning
encounters between the established group and the
newcomer/s:
A very forceful entrance by the newcomer will
exacerbate feelings of danger to the group.
The group might stop developing because of its
suspicions.
All those involved will be flexible, thus enabling
interaction and allowing for a process of change
and mutual acceptance.
Based on the constructivist paradigm in social
sciences, it is feasible to see these possibilities as
reciprocal interpretations or narratives with which the
agents involved build their reality, rather than as
immutable facts. In other words, these are the inter-
pretations by which anyone can construct his expe-
rience and understanding of the situation (Clarke,
1997; Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1991).
It is possible that while reading the above there
are therapists who have already found here an echo of
their own experiences. Situations such as the admin-
istrator not being able to find a suitable room to work
in (“making room for her” in every sense of the
word), or not finding an appropriate setting satisfac-
tory to both the school and the creative arts therapist,
are fairly common. Sometimes it is not only the
school, as the host group, which hides behind its own
specific language, but the therapist as well may, in
reporting on her/his work, use technical jargon mean-
ingless to her/his listeners. It is possible that the
therapist is caught in her/his own terminology and
unable to realize integration and change for her/him-
self. Occasionally, therapists seem unable to recog-
nize or appreciate the teachers’ efforts and work.
There is no doubt that the need for change and flex-
ibility is vital to both sides, and would benefit their
mutual encounter.
 H. Wengrower / The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
Other difficulties arise because of the ongoing
nature of relationships among members of the school
community. Occasionally there is covert/unconscious
jealousy and competition among different sections of
the staff. Classroom teachers and their pupils spend a
long time working together and a close relationship is
forged between them in which transference plays no
less a part than in the case of therapy. To leave this
term within the clinical setting, we can use the
slightly forgotten term coined by Sullivan (1954)–
parataxic distortion. It refers to a broader application
of the transference phenomenon, wherein a person
transfers the intensity of his feelings and the dynamic
of a significant relationship from the past or from
other areas of his life. An example of parataxic dis-
tortion are the strong feelings that a classroom
teacher can encourage/develop with regard to some
of her pupils, almost as if they were her/his own
children. This renders it difficult for the teacher to
accept the possibility that another faculty member
can establish a close relationship or achieve some
sort of “success” with them. In these situations the
teacher-therapist relationship becomes deficient, and
‘incidents’ resulting from unconscious conflicts
(parapraxis) result. Another reason for hostility stems
from the image the teacher may have of the thera-
pist’s work as privileged compared to the demands of
teaching an entire class.
There are many ways in which these conflicts may
affect the common enterprise. For example: forget-
ting to provide important information regarding the
child being treated, not informing the therapist of
sessions which need to be canceled because of a class
event, and not taking into account the opinion of the
therapist when evaluating or making decisions about
the child. This is not to say that therapists are immune
to such strong feelings, but training and clinical su-
pervision lessen the risk that such emotions will
block the channels of communication and coopera-
tion. Let us remember the different emphasis on
thought and action within the two cultures.
Finally, during certain stages of the therapy, as
part of the transference process, the child builds an
ideal image of the therapist, which increases the
chances of a split between good and bad ‘objects’ not
only with regard to parent-therapist, but teacher-ther-
apist as well. Without working through this develop-
mental and transient phenomenon, tension and com-
petition between these adults could ensue or even
escalate.
The need for an encounter between the culture of
education and the culture of therapy
Despite all the difficulties cited, the school plays
an important role as the provider of a framework
113
wherein preventive interventions of various degrees
can be carried out. In any event, there exists a belief
that there are a larger number of children and youth
who require therapy and are not receiving it, mainly
because many of them are not even identified as such
by their families or their school (Brown & Prout,
1989).
Let us briefly recall the terms used for different
degrees of prevention as stated by Caplan (1964) and
as they apply to education:
Primary prevention–improving the psychological
powers and abilities of pupils who show no visi-
ble signs of distress.
Secondary prevention–the identification and as-
sessment of problems in order to reduce the like-
lihood that these will inflict permanent damage.
Tertiary prevention–recognized therapeutic inter-
ventions with the population whose problems are
explicit, with the objective of preventing escala-
tion of the situation while maintaining those func-
tions that are not damaged.
Schools should undertake all three types of pre-
vention, but they rely mainly on the last two. Often,
families of children who require tertiary prevention
are not cooperative for a variety of reasons, and as a
result do not take their children to treatment or men-
tal health centers. In these cases, the education sys-
tem becomes the only place where this need is met.
Kazdin and Johnson (1994, p. 239) state that the
advances in therapy “raise prospects and possibilities
directly relevant to interventions in the schools.”
They also consider that schools offer good opportu-
nities for observation, diagnosis, and intervention.
Many aspects of a child’s development and adjust-
ment are apparent in the school setting: their interac-
tion with their peers, academic functioning, and so-
cial behavior. Academic dysfunction has been found
to correlate with subsequent psychiatric problems
and vice versa.
In light of this, and to paraphrase Goldstein, Freud
and Solnit (1973), ‘in the best interests of the child’,
it would seem that both cultures must engage in some
kind of dialogue and achieve a mutually accepting
flexibility.
Creative arts therapies as preventive
interventions in education
Creative arts therapies in educational settings can
make the following contributions: Expression
through art is an activity that has social value and is
socially acceptable. Therefore, therapy based on such
activity is less stigmatizing. It allows the integration
114 H. Wengrower / The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
of the child’s unimpaired aspects while he/she is
undergoing therapy. Thus, he/she may work on his
weaknesses and ways of coping with them, while at
the same time uncovering his/her strengths. This has
a positive effect on self-image. For example, a child
during a group session in movement therapy ex-
pressed the wish: “If only they would come from the
television to film us.” This was how he voiced the
feeling that he and his friends were artists, involved
in something good and worthy of publicizing. Or as
one child said to me: “I have discovered how creative
I can be.”
Therapy through expression and creativity em-
ploys one’s entire personality, employing emotional,
cognitive, and motorical skills; it therefore meets the
multidimensional needs of special education pupils,
such as children with learning disabilities, mental
impairments, and/or emotional and behavioral prob-
lems.
Towards a more viable encounter
In terms of the educational system, we suggest
holding a discussion about and an examination of the
desire to accept innovations and new ideas, to change
and be changed, in order to insure a fruitful collab-
oration on behalf of our mutual clients–the pupils. It
seems that the best way to clarify these issues is
through “intercultural dialogue” so that the points
and concepts discussed in this article are raised as
part of this agenda. The schools would have to ex-
plore the possibility of providing psychological as
well as physical space for the incorporation of arts
therapies, providing rooms and materials, sharing in-
formation and decisions, and so on. The participation
of therapists in staff meetings would result in a
deeper understanding of the child on the part of both
educational and therapeutic professionals.
It is suggested that creative arts therapists bear in
mind the following: after the home and family,
school is the most important place in the life of a
child, who spends an enormous amount of time there
during his twelve years of education. In light of this
fact, it appears that presenting the objectives of ther-
apy as a service offered to the child so that he can
fulfill, enjoy, and maximize his role and identity as a
pupil, is an effective operative definition. There are
already reports of interventions of this type, such as
psychodynamic intervention in kindergartens, whose
objective is to rechannel the child’s drive behavior as
play, learning, and work behavior (Brown & Prout,
1989). Treatment that focuses on short-term therapy
is a good alternative for many children who require
therapeutic attention (Dasberg, Itzigsohn & Sheffler,
1989). Lavoritano and Segal (1992) have reported on
the effectiveness of short-term verbal treatment
among high school pupils that was conducted within
the school.
It would be beneficial to design working models
that are adaptable to the educational culture, thereby
emphasizing the artistic side of the therapy. While the
surveys and meta-analysis conducted by Prout and
DeMartino (1986), Brown and Prout (1989), Prout,
Alexander, Fletcher, Memis and Miller (1993), Prout
and Prout (1998), and Prout and Brown (1999), sug-
gest that school psychologists and counselors are
often constrained to implement Rogerian, behavioral,
cognitive, and systemic therapies, creative arts ther-
apists are able to apply psychodynamic approaches,
providing of course that there is an adequate, not
purely clinical, setting. If there is a need to facilitate
regression in therapy, this can be done using the
language and disciplines of art. The structuring of the
sessions, whether they are in individual or group
settings, is also an important point and one which
therapists working in educational settings have to
re-examine, taking into account that the child/client
has to return to an environment that addresses his ego
strengths as a student. Therapists could contribute
their skills for differential diagnosis, family interven-
tions, parent-child groups, and so forth.
An arts therapist entering into the school, could
introduce and explain her profession to the school
faculty through lectures and workshops, presenta-
tions of case studies, workshops to consolidate or
enrich the staff, and so on. For both therapists and
educators, the goal is to establish common concep-
tualizations and understandings.
Summary
This article endeavored to describe the work of
arts therapists in schools as an encounter between
two cultures, the culture of school-education and the
culture of therapy. The term culture was employed
using an encompassing meaning, which includes dif-
ferent levels: (a) ideas describing the nature of the
human subject and the world; (b) values, norms,
goals, and restrictions; (c) modes of behavior and
problem solving procedures; and (d) expectations,
utopias, and ideals of a society.
The entrance of an arts therapist into a school is
understood in terms of an intercultural encounter–the
coming of a foreigner to a community. Therefore
potential conflicts that may arise in such an encounter
are mentioned, and some steps suggested that may
help in dealing with them. Since both cultures dis-
cussed here are focused on the welfare and develop-
ment of the child/pupil, it seems important that their
representatives–teachers and therapists–work to-
 H. Wengrower / The Arts in Psychotherapy 28 (2001) 109 –115
gether to forge a dialogue that will promote their joint
objectives.
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