Factoring Cases

Perfect squares are numbers that are the result of a whole number multiplied by itself or
squared. For example 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, and 100 are all perfect squares—they
come from squaring each of the numbers from 1 to 10. Notice that these perfect squares
can also come from squaring the negative numbers from −1 to −10, as (−1)( −1) = 1, (−2)
( −2) = 4, (−3)( −3) = 9, and so on.
 
A perfect square trinomial is a trinomial that is the result of a binomial multiplied by itself
or squared. For example, (x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3) = x2 + 6x + 9. The trinomial x2 + 6x + 9 is
a perfect square trinomial. Let’s factor this trinomial using the methods you have already
seen.
 
 
Example
Proble    
m Factor x2 + 6x + 9.
    Rewrite 6x as 3x + 3x, as 3 • 3 = 9, the
x2 + 3x + 3x + 9 last term, and 3 + 3 = 6, the middle term.
 
 

(x2 + 3x) + (3x + 9) Group pairs of terms.

   

  Factor x out of the first pair, and factor 3

x(x + 3) + 3(x + 3) out of the second pair.
 

  (x + 3)(x + 3) Factor out x + 3.

                                           or (x + 3)(x + 3) can also be written as
                                  (x + 3) 2 (x + 3)2.
 

Answer (x + 3)(x + 3)  or (x + 3)2  

 
 
Notice that in the trinomial x2 + 6x + 9, the a and c terms are each a perfect square,
as x2 = x • x, and 9 = 3 • 3. Also the middle term is twice the product of the x and 3 terms,
2(3)x = 6x.
 
 
Let’s look at a slightly different example next. The above example shows how (x +
3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9. What do you suppose (x – 3)2 equals? Using what you know about
multiplying binomials, you see the following.
 
(x – 3)2
(x – 3)(x – 3)
x2 – 3x – 3x + 9
x2 – 6x + 9
 
Look: (x + 3)2 = x2 + 6x + 9, and (x – 3)2 = x2 – 6x + 9! Here 9 can be written as (−3)2, so
the middle term is 2(−3)x = −6x. So when the sign of the middle term is negative, the
trinomial may be factored as (a – b)2.
 
Let’s try one more example: 9x2 – 24x + 16. Notice that 9x2 is a perfect square, as
(3x)2 = 9x2  and that 16 is a perfect square, as 42 = 16. However, the middle term, –24x is
negative, so try 16 = (−4)2. In this case, the middle term is 2(3x)( −4) = −24x. So the
trinomial 9x2 – 24x + 16 is a perfect square and factors as (3x – 4)2.
 
You can also continue to factor using grouping as shown below.
 
Example
Proble    
m Factor 9x2 – 24x + 16.
  9x2 – 12x – 12x + 16 Rewrite −24x as −12x – 12x.
  (9x2 – 12x) + (-12x + 16) Group pairs of terms. (Keep the negative
sign with the 12.)
    Factor 3x out of the first group, and
3x(3x – 4) – 4(3x – 4) factor out −4 from the second group.
  (3x – 4)(3x – 4) Factor out (3x – 4).
   
or (3x – 4) (3x – 4)(3x – 4) can also be written as
2

(3x – 4)2.
Answer (3x – 4)2  
 
Notice that if you had factored out 4 rather than −4, the 3x – 4 factor would have been
−3x + 4, which is the opposite of 3x – 4. By factoring out the −4, the factors from the
grouping come out the same, both as 3x – 4.  We need that to happen if we are going to
pull a common grouping factor out for our next step.
 
The pattern for factoring perfect square trinomials lead to this general rule.
 
 
Perfect Square Trinomials
 
A trinomial in the form a2 + 2ab + b2 can be factored as (a + b)2.
A trinomial in the form a2 – 2ab + b2 can be factored as (a – b)2.
 
Examples:
The factored form of 4x2 + 20x + 25 is (2x + 5)2.
The factored form of x2 – 10x + 25 is (x – 5)2.
 
 
Let’s factor a trinomial using the rule above. Once you have determined that the trinomial
is indeed a perfect square, the rest is easy. Notice that the c term is always positive in a
perfect trinomial square.
 
 
Example
Problem Factor x2 – 14x + 49.  
 
  x2 – 14x + 49   Determine if this is a perfect
square trinomial. The first term
is a square, as x2 = x • x. The
last term is a square as
7 • 7 = 49. Also −7 • −7 = 49.
So, a = x and b = 7 or −7.
  −14x = −7x + −7x The middle term is −2ab if we
use b = 7, because −2x(7)
= −14x. It is a perfect square
trinomial.
  (x – 7)2 Factor as (a – b)2.

Answer (x – 7)2  

 
You can, and should, always multiply to check the answer. (x – 7)2 = (x – 7)(x – 7) = x2 –
7x – 7x + 49 = x2 – 14x + 49.
 
 
Factor x2 – 12x + 36.
 
A) (x – 4)(x – 9)
 
B) (x + 6)2
 
C) (x – 6)2
 
D) (x + 6)(x – 6)
 
Show/Hide Answer
 
 
 
Factoring a Difference of Squares
 
The difference of two squares, a2 – b2, is also a special product that factors into the
product of two binomials.
 
Let’s factor 9x2 – 4 by writing it as a trinomial, 9x2 + 0x – 4. Now you can factor this
trinomial just as you have been doing.
 
9x2 + 0x – 4 fits the standard form of a trinomial, ax2 + bx + c. Let’s factor this trinomial the
same way you would any other trinomial. Find the factors of ac (9 • −4 = −36) whose sum
is b, in this case, 0.
 
 Factors of −36 Sum of the factors
1 • -36 = −36 1 + (−36) −35
2 • −18 = −36 2 + (−18) = −16
3 • −12 = −36 3 + (−12) = −9
4 • −9 = −36 4 + (−9) = −5
6 • −6 = −36 6 + (−6) = 0
9 • −4 = −36 9 + (−4) = 5
… …
 
There are more factors, but you have found the pair that has a sum of 0, 6 and −6. You
can use these to factor 9x2 – 4.
 
 
Example
Proble Factor 9x2 – 4.  
m
  9x2 + 0x – 4 Rewrite 0x as −6x + 6x.
9x  – 6x + 6x – 4
2

  (9x2 – 6x) + (6x – 4) Group pairs.

  3x(3x – 2) + 2(3x – 2) Factor 3x out of the first group. Factor 2
out of the second group.
  (3x – 2)(3x + 2) Factor out (3x – 2).
Answer (3x – 2)(3x + 2)  
 
 
Since multiplication is commutative, the answer can also be written as (3x + 2)(3x – 2).
You can check the answer by multiplying (3x – 2)(3x + 2) = 9x2 + 6x – 6x – 4 = 9x2 – 4.
 
 
Factoring a Difference of Squares
 
A binomial in the form a2 – b2 can be factored as (a + b)(a – b).
 
Examples
The factored form of x2 – 100 is (x + 10)(x – 10).
The factored form of 49y2 – 25 is (7y + 5)(7y – 5).
 
 
 
Let’s factor the difference of two squares using the above rule. Once you have determined
that you have the difference of two squares, you just follow the pattern.
 
 
Example
Problem Factor 4x2 – 36.  
 
  4x2 – 36  4x2 = (2x)2, so a = 2x
36 = 62, so b = 6
And 4x2 – 36 is the difference
of two squares.
  (2x + 6)(2x – 6) Factor as (a + b)(a – b).

Answer (2x + 6)(2x – 6)  

 
 
Check the answer by multiplying: (2x + 6)(2x – 6) = 4x2 – 12x + 12x – 36 = 4x2 – 36.
 
 
Factor 4b2 – 25.
 
A) (2b – 25)(2b + 1)
 
B) (2b + 5)2
 
C) (2b – 5)2
 
D) (2b + 5)(2b – 5)
 
Show/Hide Answer
 
 
 
Notice that you cannot factor the sum of two squares, a2 + b2. You might be tempted to
factor this as (a + b)2, but check it by multiplying:  (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) =
a2 + ab + ab + b2 = a2 + 2ab + b2, NOT a2 + b2.
 

 
Summary
 
Learning to identify certain patterns in polynomials helps you factor some “special cases”
of polynomials quickly. The special cases are:
 
 trinomials that are perfect squares, a2 + 2ab + b2 and a2 – 2ab + b2, which factor as
(a+ b)2 and (a – b)2, respectively;
 binomials that are the difference of two squares, a2 – b2, which factors as (a + b)
(a – b).
 
For some polynomials, you may need to combine techniques (looking for common factors,
grouping, and using special products) to factor the polynomial completely.
Sums and Differences of Cubes
Every polynomial that is a sum or difference of two perfect cubes can be rewritten in
the following factored form:\begin{aligned} x^3 - y^3 &= (x-y) ( x^2 + xy + y^2)
\\ x^3 + y^3 &= (x+y) ( x^2 - xy + y^2). \end{aligned}x3−y3x3+y3=(x−y)
(x2+xy+y2)=(x+y)(x2−xy+y2).
Factoring Perfect Cubes
A perfect cube polynomial is one that can be written as the product of three identical
factors. The perfect cube identities below are widely used in algebra.

(a+b)^3 = a^3 + 3a^2b + 3ab^2 + b^3(a+b)3=a3+3a2b+3ab2+b3(a-b)^3=a^3-

3a^2b + 3ab^2-b^3(a−b)3=a3−3a2b+3ab2−b3
Factoring Perfect Squares
A perfect square polynomial is one that can be written as the product of two identical
factors. The perfect square identities below are widely used in algebra.

(a+b)^2 = a^2 + 2ab + b^2(a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2(a-b)^2=a^2-2ab-

b^2(a−b)2=a2−2ab−b2