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Wind Actions Summary Page 1

Wind Actions Summary


Wind actions
• forces caused by pressure of wind passing over and around structures
• dynamic nature of winds causes fluctuations in the pressures
• area averaging and high local peaks in some areas
• can induce dynamic or resonant effects in structures

AS/NZS 1170.2: 2002


• design for ultimate/peak wind events (rare).
• Can be used to check serviceability (20 year event)
• applies to buildings with a height < 200m and span < 100m eg apartments, high rise city
buildings, medium sized exhibition buildings
• does not cover off-shore structures, some bridges, lattice towers

Designer aims to determine action effects on all structural


elements under wind actions.
Cfig,U
Cfig,D
• Uses at least four wind directions
• Design scenarios with most adverse combinations of Cfig,W
external and internal pressures for each wind
direction Cpi Kc Cfig,L
e.g. Critical design scenario
for roof, leeward wall
Characteristics of wind actions
• distributed
• estimated
• short-term < 3 seconds (peak gust)

Nomenclature

Suction (-ve) on
roof surfaces
windward wall and leeward wall
wind direction
Pressure
leeward wall (+ve) on
wind direction
windward wall

side wall
wind direction

upward slope
downward slope
wind direction

• Pressure – air flow towards surface; positive values (always perpendicular to surface)
• Suction - air flow away from surface; negative (always perpendicular to surface)
• Importance level – level assigned to structure determined by the number of people it is
designed to protect, role in post-disaster situations, whether it houses potentially dangerous
activities or materials. Refer excerpt from BCA.

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC


Wind Actions Summary Page 2

• Annual probability of exceedance – 1/(Recurrence interval). Determined by importance level


Refer excerpt from BCA
• Openings – any gap that can let air into the building. Includes doors, windows, vents, leakage
• Dominant opening – the surface with a greater area of openings than all of the other surfaces
taken one at a time.
• Dominant area ratio = (open area on surface with dominant opening)
(area of openings on all other surfaces)
• permeability – small cracks and gaps in the structure’s envelope that allow air through
typically: 0.01 (sealed, air cond) –0.5% (warehouse) of wall area.
• net pressure – external pressure minus internal pressure (kPa) across a surface. Used to
calculate action effect eg. bending moment, tension, compression or shear force on element

Excerpt from the Building Code of Australia Part B1 Structural Provisions


Table B1.2a
Importance Levels of Buildings and Structures
Importance
Building Types
Level
1 Buildings or structures presenting a low degree of hazard to life and other property in
the case of failure
2 Buildings or structures not included in Importance Levels 1,3 and 4
3 Buildings or structures that are designed to contain a large number of people
4 Buildings or structures that are essential to post-disaster recovery or associated with
hazardous facilities

Table B1.2b
Design events for safety
Annual Probability of Exceedance
Importance Wind
Snow Earthquake
Level Non-cyclonic Cyclonic
1 1:100 1:200 1:100 1:500
2 1:500 1:500 1:150 1:500
3 1:1000 1:1000 1:200 1:500
4 1:2000 1:2000 1:250 1:800

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC


Wind Actions Summary Page 3

Design strategy Detail Code reference


W1 • VR Regional wind speed
Calculate site wind speed Vsit,E o Importance Level, recurrence intervals BCA Table B1.2a&b
Vsit,E = VR Md M z,cat Ms Mt o Wind region AS/NZS1170.2 Figure 3.1
<AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 2.2> o wind speed varies with location AS/NZS1170.2 Table 3.1
Need: • Md Wind directional multiplier
• Location o Gives wind speeds for different directions at same site AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 3.3,Table 3.2
• Average roof height of • M z,cat Terrain and structure height multiplier
structure h o ground roughness given by Terrain Categories 1-4 AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 4.2.1
o can model change in Terrain upwind of site AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 4.2.3
o velocity increases with height above ground AS/NZS1170.2 Table 4.1(A) & (B)
Consider all wind directions • Ms Shielding multiplier
o protection of design site by close, larger buildings AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 4.3
immediately upwind
• Mt Topographic multiplier
o models acceleration of wind over hills
o slope of top half of hill φ = H/(2Lu) AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 4.4.2
o distance of site from crest x
W2 • Determine Vdes,θ (wind normal to faces of building) from the site
Determine design wind speed wind speeds for the cardinal directions (Vsit,β)
(Vdes,T) • dependent on orientation of structure
<AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 2.3> o if orientation known – interpolate between Vsit,β for each
Need: orthogonal axis
• Orientation of structure o if orientation unknown – use max. wind directional speed
for all directions
W3 • p is always normal to the surface, units Pa
Determine design wind pressure • +ve pressure towards surface, -ve away from surface (suction)
on surfaces (p)
p = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes,T]2 Cfig C dyn • ρair is the density of air = 1.2kg/m3
<AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 2.4> • Vdes,T design wind velocity, squared as in Bernoulli’s equation
Need: • Cfig aerodynamic shape factor; function of geometry, permeability
• geometry of building (unintended leakiness) and role of surface in overall building. AS/NZS 1170.2
• design scenarios Table 5.1(A) – no dominant opening
Table 5.1(B) – with dominant openings

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC


Wind Actions Summary Page 4

Design strategy Detail Code reference


W3 (continued) o Internal pressures Cfig = Cp,i Kc AS/NZS 1170.2
Cp,i internal pressure coefficient Table 5.1(A) – no dominant opening
Consider different combinations Kc combination factor – where pressures on two or Table 5.1(B) – with dominant openings
of openings more separate surfaces are combined
o External pressures Cfig = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp Table 5.2 (A), (B) (C) walls
Cp,e external pressure coefficient Table 5.3 (A), (B) (C) roofs
Consider all Ka area reduction factor – (only if A >10m2) Table 5.4
wind directions Kc combination factor – where pressures on two or Table 5.5
more separate surfaces are combined
Kl local pressure factor –very small areas only Table 5.6
Kp permeable cladding factor – eg tiles shadecloth Table 5.8
o Frictional drag Cfig = Cf Kc Clause 5.5
• Cdyn dynamic response factor; normally Cdyn = 1.0 Section 6
o must be calculated for structures < 1Hz eg. wind sensitive
structures – long span bridges, stadiums; cantilever roofs
eg stadiums; lighting towers, open lattice structures
o consider along- wind response, cross-wind response

W4 For at least 4 wind directions, evaluate the pressures and then combine Clause 2.5
Calculate wind actions on them to give the action effect that is appropriate for the design of each
elements structural element.
<AS/NZS1170.2 Clause 2.5> (Designer selects combination of openings to give most adverse effect –
Consider includes doors, windows, vents, leakage)
Different combinations of openings
Different wind directions

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC


Wind Actions Summary Page 5

Worked example
Wind loads on building elements
A church auditorium building is being designed for Waterman in Perth WA. Only the westerly
wind direction will be considered. The building will have one door (900 × 2100 mm) and four
windows (1800 × 1200 mm) on the North and South walls, a stained glass window (2400 × 1200 mm)
in the West wall, and double doors on the East wall (total area 1800 × 2100 mm). The site is at the top
of a beach-side reserve near the Indian Ocean and fronting a road. There are no buildings at all to the
west of the church site. All of the other buildings on the church site are behind the main auditorium
building.
Find: The total ultimate wind pressure on the stained glass window, and the net uplift load per metre
for the ultimate wind load on a highly loaded portal (Examine half the rafter spanning 12.6 m on the
rake.) Portal spacing is 3.2 m.
250 m
North
Scattered Mainly flat east of
limestone here for 400 m
outcrops,
grasses,
and saltbush
0.5 m Church
North Auditorium

coastline 2m 10 m 14 m
West Coast Drive
Site plan Waterman Church

23 m

7.8 m

24 m 2.7 m

Solution
W1 Site Wind Speed
The BCA shows that this building has an Importance Level 3, and that for a non-cyclonic wind region,
the annual probability of exceedance is 1:1000. The building is to be built in Perth, WA.
<Figure 3.1> shows that Perth is in Region A, and <Table 3.1> gives VR = 46 m/s for 1:1000 wind in
Region A.

For this problem, only one direction is considered. Region A1 has Md = 1.0 for Westerly winds
<Table 3.2>.
For Westerly winds, the approach to the structure is over
• Open ocean (Terrain category 2 for the ultimate wind event)
• Low scrub, grass and small rocky outcrops (Terrain Category 2)
7.8 + 2.7
Average roof height = = 5.25 m
2

<Table 4.2A> shows that the averaging distance for Terrain Categories for this building is 1000 m.
All terrain within 1000 m to the West of the site is Terrain Category 2. <Table 4.1A> is used for
Region A ultimate wind speeds. Mz,cat = 0.91 (for z = 5 m and Terrain Category 2)

There are no upwind buildings for Westerly winds, so Ms = 1.0. <4.3>

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC


Wind Actions Summary Page 6

The topography corresponds to an escarpment with the building near the crest. Here H = 14m, and
Lu = distance between the 7 m and 14 m contours. Scaling off the site plan gives Lu = 100 m.
H 14
Hence φ = = = 0.07 <4.4.2>
2 Lu 2 × 100
Also L1 = greater of 0.36 × 100 or 0.4 × 14. ie 36 m. As site is at the crest of the escarpment | x | = 0
14
<4.4.2> gives M t = 1 + = 1.10
3.5 (5.25 + 36)
Vsit,west = VR Md (Mz,cat Ms Mt) = 46 × 1.0 × (.91 × 1.0 × 1.10) = 46 m/s <2.2>

W2 Design Wind Speed


The problem only considers the wind blowing normal to the gable i.e. from the West.
Vdes,θ = Vsit,west = 46 m/s <2.3>

W3 Wind pressures on surfaces


p = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes,θ]2 Cfig Cdyn
None of the structural elements will have a natural frequency less tha 1.0 Hz, so Cdyn = 1.0
<6.1>

STAINED GLASS WINDOW – on windward wall


Internal Pressures outside inside
Design scenario will maximise inward pressure differential.
i.e. use a negative internal pressure – opening on side wall
Assuming building leakage at 0.1% permeability with one door and a window in peak negative
pressure region on side wall are open.

Total building leakage = area of all other surface 0.1%


= [(2 × 12.6 × 24) + (2 23 × (2.7 + (7.8 – 2.7)/2)) + (2.7 × 24)] 0.1 / 100 = 0.91 m2
(roof) (end walls) (other side)
(0.91 × 2.1 + 1.8 × 1.2)
and permeability ratio = = 4.45
0.91
Interpolating in <Table 5.1(B)> gives Cp,i = 0.92 Cp,e on the side wall at the location of the openings
For windward end of side wall, Cp,e = -0.65
i.e. Cp,i = 0.92 × (-0.65) = -0.60

External Pressures
External pressure coefficient for windward wall Cp,e = +0.7 <Table 5.2(A)>
The Area Reduction Factor Ka does not apply to the windward wall. However if the area of the
window is small enough, the Local Pressure Factor Kl may apply. (The window pane is part of the
cladding)
a is the minimum of h, 0.2 d, and 0.2 b giving a = 0.2 b = 4.6 m
The limiting area = 0.25 a2 = 5.29 m2 <Table 5.6>
2
The area of the stained glass is 2.4 × 1.2 = 2.88 m i.e. the area of the window is less than the limiting
area for loca pressures, so the Local Pressure Factor (Kl) applies with Kl = 1.25 <Table 5.6>
The stained glass window is not porous – so Kp = 1.0 <5.4.5>

Combined effects
A combination of internal and external pressures can allow the use of the Combination Factor Kc.
However, <Table 5.5> does not include a reduction for positive wall pressures and negative internal
pressures, hence Kc = 1.0.

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC


Wind Actions Summary Page 7

Cfig (internal) = Cp,i Kc = -0.6 × 1.0 = -0.6 <5.2>


pi = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes,θ]2 Cfig Cdyn <2.4.1>
= 0.5 × 1.2 × 46.02 × (-0.6) × 1.0 = -762 Pa (suction – inwards)
Cfig (external) = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp = 0.7 × 1.0 × 1.0 × 1.25 × 1.0 = -0.875 <5.2>
pi = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes,θ]2 Cfig Cdyn <2.4.1>
= 0.5 × 1.2 × 46.02 × (0.875) × 1.0 = 1111 Pa (pressure – inwards)

Net pressure = Pe – Pi = 1111+768 =1873 Pa (inwards) = 1.87 kPa

ROOF UPLIFT
Internal Pressures
Design scenario chosen will maximise outward pressure differential.
i.e. use a positive internal pressure i.e. an opening on the windward wall. However, there are no
potential openings on the windward wall, so take the case of a closed building – all walls equally
permeable. <Table 5.1(A)> gives two cases: -0.3 or +0.0. Here +0.0 is the most positive.

External Pressures R
With the wind from the West, the wind is parallel to the R
Ridge and the two roof surfaces are both “R” surfaces.
h 5.25
Here = = 0.219 i.e. < 0.5 wind
d 24
So, over the end 5.25 m of roof, <Table 5.3(A)> gives Cp,e = -0.9 or –0.4.
Use –0.9 as it is most negative.

End rafter supports a rectangular area of roof going 1.6 m into the building. The next one supports a
rectangle of width 3.2 m going from 1.6 m to 4.8 m from the Western end. The second rafter has a
larger contributory area, and is entirely within the highly loaded region in the Western 5.25 m of the
roof. It will be the critical rafter for wind uplift design and will have Cp,e = -0.9.

The portal rafter supports a large area, but the aerodynamics of the roof has two surfaces – one on each
side of the ridge. The area of each surface carried by the rafter is A = 12.6 × 3.2 = 40.3 m2
The Area Reduction Factor Ka for roofs and side walls can be found by interpolation in <Table 5.4>.
Interpolating between A = 25 m2 and A = 100 m2 gives Ka = 0.88.
The area supported by one rafter is too large to consider a Local Pressure Factor. Kl =1.0 <5.4.4>
The surface is not porous, so the reduction factor for porous cladding (Kp) does not apply.
Kp = 1.0 <5.4.5>

Combined effects
<Table 5.5> allows a reduction for roof suction and positive internal pressure. However, in this case,
the internal pressure is 0. All of the effect comes from external pressure, so there is not reduction.
Combination Factor Kc = 1.0.
Cfig (internal) = Cp,i Kc = 0.0 × 1.0 = 0.0 <5.2>
pi = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes,θ]2 Cfig Cdyn <2.4.1>
= 0.0 kPa
Cfig (external) = Cp,e Ka Kc Kl Kp = -0.9 × 0.88 × 1.0 × 1.0 × 1.0 = -0.792 <5.2>
pi = (0.5 ρair) [Vdes,θ]2 Cfig Cdyn <2.4.1>
2
= 0.5 × 1.2 × 46.0 × (-0.792) × 1.0 = -1005 Pa (pressure – outwards)

Net pressure = Pe – Pi = -1005+0 =1005 Pa (outwards) = 1.0 kPa


Linear upward load 0n 3.2 m wide area = -1.0 × 3.2 = 3.2 kN/m

Edition 1.0 (2002) NTDC / FWPRDC

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