Chinese Studies, 2023, 12, 140-156

https://www.scirp.org/journal/chnstd
ISSN Online: 2168-541X
ISSN Print: 2168-5428

A Potential Solution to Chinese Students’

Unintelligible English Accent: A Study of the
Effectiveness of a Stress Placement
Intervention to Improve Chinese English
Speakers’ Lexical Pronunciation

Liwen Liu

Language Center, Chung Hua University, Taiwan, China

How to cite this paper: Liu, L. W. (2023). Abstract

A Potential Solution to Chinese Students’
Unintelligible English Accent: A Study of the
Effectiveness of a Stress Placement Interven-
tion to Improve Chinese English Speakers’
Lexical Pronunciation. Chinese Studies, 12,
140-156.
https://doi.org/10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013
Received: July 15, 2021
Accepted: April 16, 2023
Published: April 19, 2023
Copyright © 2023 by author(s) and
Scientific Research Publishing Inc.
This work is licensed under the Creative
Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Open Access
Due to a lack of authentic learning resources, Chinese students often do not
receive native pronunciation models in their classes. This study provided
Chinese students with an approach to improve their English pronunciation,
specifically to sound more like British Received Pronunciation (RP) or Gen-
eral American English Pronunciation (GAEP). The study proposes word stress
prediction rules to help non-native Chinese learners predict the primary
word stress of English words, improving their vocabulary pronunciation. Re-
peated-measures tests confirmed the effectiveness of this model, and statis-
tical results showed that these rules were both applicable and teachable. These
rules successfully enabled Chinese English learners to stress the correct vo-
wel in a new English word without consulting a dictionary. Chinese students
can rely on these rules for predicting the word stress of dictionary words,
enabling them to pronounce new words as accurately as possible to native
speakers.
Keywords
British Received Pronunciation (RP), General American English
Pronunciation (GAEP), Intelligibility, Primary Word Stress Placement,
Vocabulary Part of Speech, Word Endings, Word Length

1. Introduction
The rise of the United States of America after the Second World War and the

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 Apr. 19, 2023 140 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

electronic revolution near the end of the twentieth century gave rise to American
English as the internationally accepted norm of the English language. According
to Kachru (from Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2001), “never before has a
language reached the dominance that English has achieved in the realms of busi-
ness and commerce, science and technology, and media and popular culture” (p.
140). “With the spread of globalization and the rapid expansion of information
technologies, the demand for understanding English has exploded worldwide.
When the need for global communication exceeds the limits set by language bar-
riers, the spread of English accelerates” (Kachru, 1982: p. ix).
Wei (2012) reported that more Chinese use English in any form than the US
population [about 330 million]. English is one of the most widely spoken and in-
fluential languages in the world today. It is the official language of more than 50
countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia,
and many others.
One of the primary reasons why English strongly influences global education
is that many of the world’s top universities and educational institutions use Eng-
lish as the primary language of instruction. This means that students who want
to study in these institutions need to have a good command of the English lan-
guage to understand lectures, read textbooks, and communicate with their peers
and professors. In addition to education, the English language also has a signifi-
cant impact in commerce. English is often used as the language of business
communication, particularly in industries such as finance, technology, and in-
ternational trade. Knowing English can provide individuals and companies with
a competitive edge in the global marketplace, as it facilitates communication
with clients and partners from around the world. Moreover, scientific research is
another area where the English language plays a crucial role. Many of the world’s
most prestigious scientific journals publish their articles in English, and research-
ers from all over the world often use English as the language of communication
at conferences and symposia. Finally, the English language is essential for in-
formation exchange in the digital age. English is the language of the internet,
and many of the most popular websites and online platforms, such as Google,
Facebook, and Twitter, are in English. Understanding English allows individu-
als to access a wealth of information and connect with people from all over the
world.
Because the English language has such a worldwide influence as mentioned
above, people in all parts of the world must become comfortable enough with
the English language. Overall, the widespread use and influence of the English
language make it an essential language for anyone who wants to engage with the
global community, education, trade, scientific research, or communication. It is
paramount for non-native English speakers to speak the English language with
grammatical accuracy and standard dialect as authentically as a native speaker
would because “one cannot disagree that the criterion of ‘native-like’ control is
appropriate for most language-learning situations” (Kachru, 1982: p. 35).
Current trends in the English language precipitated the British Received RP

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 141 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

and GAEP, “well-documented and generally acceptable form [s] of the native va-
riety of English” (Kachru, 1986: p. 86). Moreover, “it is thought that it is gen-
erally heard in daily discourses among people who have been educated in the
British or American sense” (Waldo, 1968: p. 2). Adopting either RP or GAEP
while speaking not only improves the comprehensibility of non-native speak-
ers to fluent English users and native speakers, but it also helps to decrease
negative attitudes toward the accents of non-native speakers (Nelson, from Kach-
ru, 1982).
Dale (1976) stated that “despite the long-standing belief in the pluralism of
American society, the American people have always been less than tolerant of
differences, and nowhere is this intolerance clearer than in the area of language
differences” (p. 273). He specified that “this problem is largely a problem of pre-
judice resulting from the inability of society as a whole to accept linguistic diver-
sity” (p. 282). Dale (1976) further explained that “the phonological differences
probably contribute more than syntactic differences to difficulties in under-
standing between native and non-native speakers of the same language” (p. 275),
and in English, misplacing primary stress is the most common reason for mi-
sunderstandings (Pathare, 2005: p. 75).
While a non-native speaker’s pronounced accent may be comprehensible, it
can still be annoying to the listener and may result in embarrassment or ridicule.
Non-native speakers strive to achieve the GAEP, which is clear and easily un-
derstood, without drawing undue attention to itself at the expense of the mes-
sage (Carruthers, 1987). According to Crystal (2003), “the number of people in
China who are starting to use English in some form is greater than the entire
population of the United Kingdom [about 65 million]” (p. 3). Given the signifi-
cant number of Chinese speakers using English, it is unsurprising that there has
been a great deal of research focused on developing strategies and methods to
aid oral communication in English language teaching.
For non-native speakers, the most challenging part of learning English is the
correct placement of stress. The inability to correctly emphasize syllables leaves
the impression that the non-native speaker is unintelligible. If non-native speak-
ers are to be proficient in the proper pronunciation of English vocabulary, a
method that teaches the appropriate emphasis on word stress placement must be
implemented. Without such spoken GAEP training, non-native speakers will be
unable to conduct business with either native or non-native Anglophones effec-
tively. This study was to recommend an effective method to reduce non-native
English learners, such as Chinese college students’ foreign accents, which could
hinder their English audience’s comprehensibility. At the same time, to evaluate
whether this method is effective or not to improve the authenticity of these Chi-
nese students’ pronunciation to increase their communication with their English
interlocutors.

2. Review of Related Literature

This study aims to teach Chinese students how to pronounce unfamiliar multi-

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 142 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

syllabic words with a focus on the correct syllables to achieve a native accent in
their vocabulary pronunciation. When students are confronted with such voca-
bulary in the future, they will be able to stress those words appropriately on the
spot while phasing out the foreign accent and enhancing their oral communica-
tion with English speakers. Therefore, it is significant to recommend Chinese
EFL learners a simple approach to improve their students’ accents toward dic-
tionary-level authenticity when they say English words.
English word stress is a property of syllables; it is a prosodic or suprasegmen-
tal feature of oral vocabulary (Fromkin, Rodman, & Hyams, 2018). According to
Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2018), to create a stressed syllable, one can em-
ploy several phonetic techniques, including raising the pitch, increasing the vo-
lume, and emphasizing the syllable’s length, in order to stress it.
There has been a dearth of research on English word stress patterns over the
past few decades, with even less published in recent years. One reason why word
stress may be overlooked is that many explanations of the topic tend to be overly
complex. While contemporary linguistic research addresses stress placement rules,
almost all of it focuses on the topic from the perspective of native speakers, as-
suming that their readers are already proficient in English. Kreidler (1989) re-
ported, “there are stress rules which account for the place of stress in numerous
words, although not all, of the language. They are, by and large, known to its na-
tive speakers though not in a completely conscious way” (p. 198).
These current theories of contemporary linguists are complicated in that they
involve vowel quality determination and syllable counting. According to Odlin
(1989), one must possess at least a general knowledge of what constitutes syl-
lables and how many of them are there in a word to stress the right one. He says,
“to become literate in a syllabic system, one must recognize correspondences
between written symbols and syllables” (p. 125). According to Kreidler (1989),
“the ‘fuzziness’ or ambiguity in some syllable boundaries is part of the English
sound system”, and “there is no clear syllable break” (pp. 77 & 85). Bowen, Mad-
sen, and Hilferty (1985) know how difficult syllabification is even for native
speakers. “One painful experience for most Americans is learning where it is
possible to break a word that will not quite fit at the end of a line. Many people
just give up and check every word in the dictionary” (pp. 297-298).
The stress prediction strategies adopted by the well-known linguists Chomsky
and Halle (1968) and Fudge’s (1984) are based on the vowels’ quality and syllabi-
fication in vocabulary. However, those theories determining the strong or weak
quality of an English vowel in phonological segments are rather complicated no-
tions to most Chinese English learners.
Due to the lack of practicality of stress placement strategies based on vowel
quality and syllables, the stress rules presented in this research adopt the work of
a Canadian linguist, George S. Waldo (1968). Waldo’s stress placement prin-
ciples are much more promising for Chinese EFL students for their avoidance of
the analysis of vowels and syllables. Instead, his approach depends on recogniz-

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 143 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

ing word endings and counting vowels backwards from the end of a word. These
techniques should be relatively easier for Chinese English students to learn.
In Waldo’s (1968) opinion, when deciding where to place primary stress on
an English word, it is more appropriate to categorize words based on the pho-
netic nature of their endings. According to Waldo’s rules, English words can be
categorized into two groups based on their endings: those that end in a vowel or
a consonant. These groups can then be further subdivided into six categories:
(-CC), (-CVC), and (-VVC) which end with one or more consonants, and
(-CCe), (-CVCe), (-VVCe), (-VV), (-V), and (-Cy) which end with one or more
vowels. In these representations, the capital letters C and V represent consonant
and vowel patterns, respectively, while the lowercase letters (e and y) stand for
themselves.
The primary stress location in English vocabulary is mainly determined by
these nine types of word endings, with only a few exceptions. However, two oth-
er factors need to be taken into account: the part of speech of the words, which
can affect stress placement; for example, “sometimes two-syllable nouns and ad-
jectives are stressed on the first syllable while two-syllable verbs and adverbs are
stressed on the second syllable”. Second, the length of the words can also influ-
ence stress; for example, “sometimes two-syllable words are stressed according
to their parts of speech, while words with three or more syllables are stressed
according to the two-consonant rule” (Waldo, 1968: p. 31). Figure 1 illustrates
the relationships between these factors.

Figure 1. Factors that influence word stress placement in Waldo’s model.

Waldo’s model considers several factors that influence the placement of word
stress in English, including the nature of the word’s ending, its part of speech,
and its length. These factors interact with one another and are represented in
Waldo’s model as in the above diagram.
Covering about 90% of the entire English vocabulary, Waldo’s approaches to

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 144 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

predicting word stress placement in English were based on the orthographic

representation of the language. He developed a set of rules for predicting stress
by analyzing the morphological structures of words. In other words, his model
predicts stress placement solely based on the spelling of words. Waldo’s me-
thod emphasizes the arrangement of vowels in words and aims to reduce the
use of complex syllabification. This approach stresses certain vowels based on
the word’s characteristics. For instance, words ending with a consonant and
“y” (-Cy) place stress on the antepenultimate vowel (second vowel before the
final one), as in “inTEgrity”. Similarly, words ending with “-ic” stress the pe-
nultimate vowel (the first vowel before the final one), such as in “auTHENtic”.
The model’s simplicity in terms of linguistic requirements makes it a more
viable option for non-native learners compared to strategies employed by oth-
er linguists. This study offers the model in both categorical and alphabetical
layouts, making it retrievable not only by category but in alphabetical order as
well. With its dictionary-like format of similarity-based backward entries, this
model gives readers friendly access to the rules, as opposed to complicated
formulae developed by other word stress experts. Krashen’s second language
acquisition theory (Gass & Selinker, 2001) argued that, it is subconscious ac-
quisition that accounts for most of the language ability. Prator and Robinett
(1972) pointed out that if the stress rules are well practiced and internalized,
they “can be of great value as a means of progressing gradually from the con-
scious to the unconscious control of a feature of pronunciation, as a way of
adding one more analyzed element to the synthesis of normal speech” (Prator
& Robinett, 1972: p. xviii). This list of Waldo’s rules is presented in Appendix
(See Appendix 4).
Each stress rule denotes a fixed syllable to carry the primary stress and, there-
fore, forms a fixed sound pattern in those words that shares a word ending. This
experiment provides students an opportunity to understand intuitively where
the primary stress should fall on a word and be able to stress unheard long
words correctly and naturally as native speakers do. This fits the principle of the
Natural approach where learners internalize a second language naturally as they
acquire their native language (Toprak, 2019).
People who are concerned about vocabulary being too difficult or esoteric for
students to learn miss the point. The vocabulary words selected are for the sole
purpose of stress placement practice, and their meaning or usage is not the les-
son’s focus. As long as the words carry the word endings that fit the rules, they
are included in the stress placement material. In fact, the corpus in the stress rule
material is actually adopted from the TOEFL and TOEIC tests. Students who
pursue a higher level of English proficiency should have no excuse for avoiding
unfamiliar vocabulary words, especially with respect to stress placement and
pronunciation. Linguists Stephen Krashan’s renowned L2 language theory, the
“Input Hypothesis”, posited that learning is maximized when the material pre-
sented aligns with the learner’s current level and includes one level of difficulty

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 145 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

greater, akin to ascending a ladder (Western, 2020).

3. Research Methods
3.1. Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Null Hypotheses
3.1.1. Research Questions
This research compared the effectiveness of the above-mentioned stress predic-
tion model instruction in the experimental group and the effectiveness of tradi-
tional vocabulary pronunciation in the control group. The first step was to
compare the correctness of syllable stress from words using a binary scoring cri-
teria (See Appendix 1 & 2) that determined the correctness of the stress place-
ment of the two groups of students’ spoken words according to Webster’s New
World Dictionary (1988). The second step was to compare the intelligibility of the
students who received stress placement intervention and those who received tra-
ditional vocabulary pronunciation instruction. Adopting a 5-point Likert scale
scoring system (See Appendix 3) would help discover how authentic the two
groups’ of students’ overall vocabulary pronunciation was to native teachers. Ac-
cording to researcher LaMarca (2011), the Likert scale questionnaire “does not
force the participant to take a stand on a particular topic, but allows them to re-
spond in a degree of agreement”. Each of the 20 questions required a scaled
5-point answer ranging from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree”. To achieve
the aforementioned goal, the following research questions were formulated:
1a Did the experimental group’s scores for correctly placing word stress, as
judged by Webster’s Dictionary, differ before and after receiving instruction on
stress placement rules?
1b Did the control group’s scores for correctly placing word stress, as judged
by Webster’s Dictionary, differ before and after receiving traditional vocabulary
pronunciation lessons?
2a Did the intelligibility scores of the experimental group, as assessed by na-
tive English speakers, differ before and after being instructed on stress placement
rules?
2b Did the intelligibility scores of the control group, as assessed by native Eng-
lish speakers, differ before and after receiving traditional vocabulary pronuncia-
tion lessons?
3a Is there a correlation between the objective stress placement evaluation
outcomes and the subjective intelligibility scores of the experimental group be-
fore and after the stress rule intervention?
3b Is there a correlation between the objective stress placement evaluation
outcomes and the subjective intelligibility scores of the control group before and
after traditional vocabulary pronunciation instruction?

3.1.2. Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses

The study examined the corresponding research hypotheses and null hypotheses
listed below:

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 146 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

H1oa. There is no statistically significant difference in the experimental group’s

correct word stress placement scores, as evaluated by Webster’s Dictionary, be-
fore and after being taught stress placement rules.
H1ob. There is no statistically significant difference in the control group’s cor-
rect word stress placement scores, as evaluated by Webster’s Dictionary, before
and after receiving traditional vocabulary pronunciation lessons.
H2oa. There is no statistically significant difference in the intelligibility scores
of the experimental group, as assessed by native English speakers, before and af-
ter being instructed on stress placement rules.
H2ob. There is no statistically significant difference in the intelligibility scores
of the control group, as assessed by native English speakers, before and after re-
ceiving traditional vocabulary pronunciation lessons.
H3oa. There is no statistically significant correlation between the objective stress
placement evaluation results and the subjective intelligibility scores for the expe-
rimental group before and after the stress rule intervention.
H3ob. There is no statistically significant correlation between the objective
stress placement evaluation results and the subjective intelligibility scores for the
control group before and after the traditional vocabulary pronunciation instruc-
tion.

4. Results and Discussion

The study provides information and data about the feasibility and usefulness of
stress prediction model rules for non-native English speakers, specifically Chi-
nese English majors. The pedagogy is to instill in students the ability to inde-
pendently determine stress placement in long words. The study results are cru-
cial for college EFL teachers, as they help to understand their students’ difficul-
ties with vocabulary pronunciation and to enhance their teaching methods ac-
cordingly. The following analyses and findings were derived from investigating
each of the three research hypotheses using descriptive statistics.
Research question 1a aimed to determine if there was a statistically significant
difference in the accurate placement of word stress on 20 dictionary words pro-
nounced by 20 Chinese students in the experimental group before and after they
received tutoring in stress placement rules. The paired-sample t-test in question
1a showed a significant difference in the scores of correct word stress placements
between the pre- and post-intervention test scores, with the scores increasing
from 50.75 to 70.50 (out of 100). The obtained t value of −8.354 was outside the
acceptance range, indicating that null hypothesis 1a was rejected. The test had 19
degrees of freedom, and the critical value of t was 2.093 for a two-tailed test at
the 0.05 significance level. Based on the statistical data, the students significantly
improved in correctly placing word stress after instruction on stress rules. See
Table 1(a) below.
Research question 1b aimed to determine if there was a statistically signifi-
cant difference in the accurate placement of word stress on 20 dictionary words

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 147 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

pronounced by 20 Chinese students in the control group before and after they
received traditional vocabulary pronunciation instruction. The paired-sample
t-test in question 1b showed an insignificant difference in the scores of cor-
rect word stress placements between the pre- and post-test scores, with scores
increasing from 50.25 to 50.50 (out of 100). The obtained t value of −0.056
was inside the acceptance range, indicating that null hypothesis 1b was not
rejected. The test had 19 degrees of freedom, and the critical value of t was
2.093 for a two-tailed test at the 0.05 significance level. Based on the statistical
data, the students did not significantly improve in correctly placing word
stress after receiving traditional instruction on vocabulary pronunciation. See
Table 1(b) below.

Table 1. (a) for Research question 1a, the experimental group’s word stress placement
scores for 20 dictionary words were compared before and after the stress rule intervention
(N = 20); (b) for Research question 1b, the control group’s word stress placement scores
for 20 dictionary words were compared before and after receiving traditional vocabulary
pronunciation instruction (N = 20).

(a)

Mean (Std. Deviation)

Dimension Effect Size
Pre-test Post-test df t p
(d)
50.75 70.50
Score 19 −8.354 0.000 −2.64
(15.06) (14.50)

(b)

Mean (Std. Deviation)

Dimension Effect Size
Pre-test Post-test df t p
(d)
50.25 70.50
Score 19 −0.56 0.956 −0.1
(21.05) (14.40)

Research question 2a aimed to determine if there was a statistically significant

difference in the intelligibility scores of 20 dictionary words pronounced by 20
Chinese students in the experimental group before and after they received tu-
toring in stress placement rules. The results of a paired-sample t-test indicated
that the students’ intelligibility scores increased significantly from 50.90 to 61.25
points (out of 100) between the pre- and post-intervention tests. The test had 19
degrees of freedom, and the critical t-value was 2.093 for a two-tailed test at the
0.05 significance level. As the obtained t-value of −5.93 was beyond the accep-
tance range, null hypothesis 2a was rejected. The statistical analysis of the data
indicates significant differences between the two tests, which suggests that the
students’ overall word pronunciation intelligibility improved after the stress rule
intervention. See Table 2(a) below.
Research question 2b aimed to determine if there was a statistically significant

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 148 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

difference in the intelligibility scores of 20 dictionary words pronounced by 20

Chinese students in the control group before and after they received traditional
vocabulary pronunciation instruction. The results of a paired-sample t-test
showed that there was an insignificant increase in the students’ intelligibility
scores from 51.00 to 51.95 points (out of 100) between the pre- and post-tests.
The test had 19 degrees of freedom, and the critical t-value was 2.093 for a
two-tailed test at the .05 significance level. As the obtained t-value of −0.427 was
within the acceptance range, null hypothesis 2b was not rejected. The statistical
analysis of the data indicates no significant differences between the two tests,
suggesting that the students’ overall word pronunciation intelligibility did not
really improve after traditional vocabulary pronunciation instruction. See Table
2(b) below.

Table 2. (a) for Research question 2a, the experimental group’s intelligibility scores for 20
dictionary words were compared before and after the stress rule intervention (N = 20);
(b) for Research question 2b, the control group’s intelligibility scores for 20 dictionary
words were compared before and after receiving traditional vocabulary pronunciation in-
struction (N = 20).

(a)

Mean (Std. Deviation)

Dimension Effect Size
Pre-test Post-test df t p
(d)
50.90 61.25
Score 19 −5.93 0.000 −1.87
(9.44) (12.35)

(b)

Mean (Std. Deviation)

Dimension Effect Size
Pre-test Post-test df t p
(d)
51.00 51.95
Score 19 −4.27 0.674 −0.135
(9.13) (11.24)

Research question 3a aimed to determine if there was a positive correlation

between accurate word stress placement in English vocabulary words and their
intelligibility in the experimental group. The statistical analysis indicated a
strong positive Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r(38) = 0.70, p =< 0.001) be-
tween the scores of correct word stress placement and whole word intelligibility
on a set of 20 dictionary words. Since the obtained r value was 0.70, null hypo-
thesis 3a was rejected. The statistical data shows that in the experimental group
that received stress rule intervention, there was a correlation between the accura-
cy of word stress placement and the intelligibility of words. This suggests that
words sounded more intelligible when stress was accurately placed. See Table
3(a) below.
Research question 3b aimed to determine if there was a positive correlation

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 149 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

between accurate word stress placement in English vocabulary words and their
intelligibility in the control group. The statistical analysis indicated a weak posi-
tive Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r(38) = 0.037, p =< 0.001) between the
scores of correct word stress placement and whole word intelligibility on a set of
20 dictionary words. Since the obtained r value was 0.037, null hypothesis 3b was
not rejected. The statistical data indicates that in the experimental group that
received stress rule intervention, there was a correlation between the accuracy of
word stress placement and the intelligibility of words, suggesting that words
sounded more intelligible when stress was placed accurately. The statistical data
shows that in the control group that received traditional vocabulary pronuncia-
tion instruction, there might be a correlation between the accuracy of word
stress placement and the intelligibility of words. This suggests that when the ac-
curacy of stress placement in words was insufficient, the words could not sound
more intelligible. See Table 3(b) below.

Table 3. (a) for Research question 3a, the experimental group’s correlation results be-
tween the scores of correct word stress placement and the scores of word pronunciation
were analyzed for 20 dictionary words (N = 40); (b) for Research question 3b, the control
group’s correlation results between the scores of correct word stress placement and the
scores of word pronunciation were analyzed for 20 dictionary words (N = 40).

(a)

Stress Placement score -

Pronunciation score 0.70**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

(b)

Stress Placement score -

Pronunciation score 0.037**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.819

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

5. Conclusion
“There are an estimated 400 million English language learners in China” (British
Council, 2023). The widespread use of English does not necessarily result in
cultural homogeneity; rather, it can serve as a means to express and clarify cul-
tural differences. Even linguists who worry about the loss of linguistic diversity
must admit that a common language is necessary for the ease of communication
(KLRN San Antonio, 1994). Due to this importance, English has been a crucial
component of the Chinese educational system’s curriculum, particularly in
higher education.
To surmount the linguistic difficulties stemming from their mother tongue
and unfavorable learning conditions, Chinese students necessitate a productive

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 150 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

and proficient approach. The objective of this research was to exhibit the efficacy
of a set of English word stress guidelines devised by Canadian linguist George
Waldo in enhancing the English pronunciation skills of Chinese undergraduates.
Waldo’s method is based solely on the written form of words and involves
counting the number of vowels from the end of a word to determine its stress
pattern. His approach provides a simple solution to the unintelligible pronuncia-
tion of Chinese English learners. This approach empowers Chinese students to
recognize and pronounce words correctly without the help of a dictionary or a
native speaker’s demonstration.
The effectiveness of Waldo’s stress prediction model was proved in a study
where his model was investigated using a stress rule intervention procedure with
20 Chinese English students. Repeated-measure tests verified the effectiveness of
these rules on the students’ intelligibility of their vocabulary pronunciation for
native speakers. The test results demonstrated successful outcomes for the large
English-learning population in Chinese English classrooms.
Classroom adoption of Waldo’s model pronunciation rules provides non-native
English speakers with a self-evident, easy-to-learn guide for study. By stressing
the correct syllables in English vocabulary, non-native speakers soften their for-
eign accents when speaking English, and consequently reducing the linguistic
barrier in communicating in the English world.
This word stress prediction model can also be useful for non-native speaking
business people who are in need to communicate business with English-speaking
people. Speaking the English language with an authentic or nearly authentic ac-
cent facilitates the smoothness of business operations for non-native speakers of
English. Therefore, a book about the stress prediction model would be ideal for
promoting the application and practicability of this accent-improving approach.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.

References
Bowen, J. D., Madsen, H., & Hilferty, A. (1985). TESOL Techniques and Procedures. New
York, Newbury House Publishers.
British Council. (2023). English in Numbers: Did You Know?
https://www.britishcouncil.cn/en/EnglishGreat/numbers
Carruthers, R. (1987). Teaching Pronunciation. Methodology in TESOL: A Book of Read-
ings (pp.192-193). New York, Newbury House Publishers.
Chomsky, N., & Halle, M. (1968). The Sound Pattern of English. Harper & Row, Publish-
ers.
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language (p. 3). Cambridge University Press.
Dale, P. S. (1976). Language Development: Structure and Function (2nd ed.). Holt Rine-
hart & Winston.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams. N. (2018). An Introduction to Language (11th Asia

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 151 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

ed.). Cengage Publishing.

Fudge, E. (1984). English Word-Stress. George Allen & Unwin.
Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course
(2nd ed., pp. 202-206). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410604651
Kachru, B. (1982). The Other Tongue: English across Cultures. Pergamon Institute of
English.
Kachru, B. (1986). The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-Native
Englishes. Pergamon Institute of English.
Kachru, B. (2001). Children of Immigration: The Developing Child Series. Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
Kreidler, C. W. (1989). The Pronunciation of English: A Course Book in Phonology. Basil
Blackwell Ltd.
LaMarca, N. (2011). The Likert Scale: Advantages and Disadvantages. Field Research in
Organizational Psychology.
https://psyc450.wordpress.com/2011/12/05/the-likert-scale-advantages-and-disadvanta
ges
Odlin, T. (1989). Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning (p.
115). Cambridge University Press.
Pathare, E. (2005). Word Stress.
https://pedagogie.ac-orleans-tours.fr/fileadmin/user_upload/anglaisLP/dossier_ressour
ces/word_stress.pdf
Prator, C. H., & Robinett, B. W. (1972). Manual of American English Pronunciation (3rd
ed.). Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc.
Suarez-Orozco, C., & Suarez-Orozco, M. M. (2001). Children of Immigration: The De-
veloping Child Series. Harvard University Press.
https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674044128
Toprak, T. E. (2019). The Natural Approach. In Basics of ELT (pp.127-142). Black Swan
Publishing House.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335466055_The_Natural_Approach
Waldo, G. S. (1968). Stress the Right Syllable: The Accentuation of English Words. Al-
berta, Canada.
Webster’s New World Dictionary (1988). (3rd College ed.). Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Wei, R. N. (2012). The Statistics of English in China.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236986651_The_statistics_of_English_in_Ch
ina
Western, P. (2020). What Is the i+1 Principle? Oxford Open Learning.
https://www.ool.co.uk/blog/what-is-the-i1-principle

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 152 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

Appendixes
Include:
1. A sample of the pre-test stress placement scoring sheet
2. A sample of the post-test stress placement scoring sheet
3. A sample of word intelligibility scoring sheet for native evaluators
4. A sample of Stress placement prediction rules

1. Pre-test word stress scoring sheet: 2. Post-test word stress scoring sheet:

Please read out loud the Please read out loud the
score score
following words 3 times each: following words 3 times each:
1. volunteer 5 0 1. mutineer 5 0
2. epistolary 5 0 2. cartulary 5 0
3. statistics 5 0 3. gymnastics 5 0
4. gingivitis 5 0 4. arthritis 5 0
5. obstacle 5 0 5. pinnacle 5 0
6. holograph 5 0 6. allograph 5 0
7. juvenile 5 0 7. imbecile 5 0
8. photography 5 0 8. integrity 5 0
9. sclerosis 5 0 9. hypnosis 5 0
10. allegory 5 0 10. vainglory 5 0
11. oblivion 5 0 11. rebellion 5 0
12. safari 5 0 12. graffiti 5 0
13. aromatic 5 0 13. esoteric 5 0
14. enigma 5 0 14. antenna 5 0
15. amphibian 5 0 15. meridian 5 0
16. guarantee 5 0 16. employee 5 0
17. comprehensible 5 0 17. indelible 5 0
18. collegiate 5 0 18. fluctuate 5 0
19. alimony 5 0 19. sanctimony 5 0
20. kleptomania 5 0 20. encyclopedia 5 0

3. Word intelligibility scoring sheet for native evaluators:

Please circle what you feel about the pronunciation of the following words:
Score: 1 2 3 4 5
1. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
2. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
3. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
4. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
5. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
6. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 153 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

7. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like

8. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
9. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
10. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
11. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
12. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
13. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
14. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
15. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
16. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
17. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
18. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
19. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like
20. Incomprehensible Guessable Fair Decent Native-like

4. Sample of Stress placement prediction rules (Samples)

Rule 1 Words that end in –V∙tis: primary stress falls on –V∙tis-
1. ap·pen·di·CI·tis (n.)【醫】闌尾炎,盲腸炎
2. ar·THRI·tis (n.)【解】關節炎
3. bron·CHI·tis (n.)【醫】支氣管炎
4. CU·tis (n.)【解】皮膚;真皮;【植】表皮
5. con·junc·ti·VI·tis (n.)【醫】結膜炎
6. co·LI·tis (n.)【醫】結腸炎
7. der·ma·TI·tis (n.)皮膚炎
8. gas·TRI·tis (n.)胃炎
9. gin·gi·VI·tis (n.)牙齦炎
10. GRA·tis (adj.)免費的 (adv.) 免費
11. hep·a·TI·tis (n.)肝炎
12. lar·yn·GI·tis (n.)【醫】喉(頭)炎
13. neu·RI·tis (n.)神經炎
14. po·li·o·my·e·LI·tis (n.)【醫】脊髓灰質炎,小兒麻痺症
15. ton·sil·LI·tis (n.)【醫】扁桃腺炎
Rule 2 Words that end in –i∙a: primary stress falls on the first syllable from–i·a
1. a·PHA·si·a (n.)【醫】失語症
2. a·dy·NA·mi·a (n.) 【醫】衰弱
3. al·LU·vi·a (n.) (alluvium 的複數) 沖積層;沖積土
4. al·o·PE ci·a (n.) 禿頭症
5. am·MO·ni·a (n.)【化】氨,阿摩尼亞;氨水
6. am·NE·si·a (n.) 【醫】記憶缺失; 健忘(症)
7. am·PHIB·i·a (n.) 【動】兩棲類
8. an·OS·mi·a (n.) 【醫】嗅覺喪失症
9. an·o·REX·i·a (n.) (病理學) 厭食症
10. as·PHYX·i·a (n.) 【醫】窒息;悶死

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 154 Chinese Studies

 L. W. Liu

11. bac·TE·ri·a (n.) (bacterium 的複數) 細菌

12. be·GO·ni·a (n.)【植】秋海棠屬植物
13. bib·lio·MA·ni·a (n.) 藏書癖; 珍本書收藏狂
14. BRON·chi·a (n.) 支氣管
15. bu·LI·mi·a (n.) (病理學)暴食症
16. ca·MEL·li·a (n.) 山茶花
17. CIL·i·a (n.)(pl.) 【植】纖毛，【動】纖毛， 睫毛
18. claus·tro·PHO·bi·a (n.) 【醫】幽閉恐怖症
19. CRA·ni·a (n.) (cranium 的複數) 頭蓋骨
20. cri·TE·ri·a (n.) (criterion 的複數)(判斷、批評的)標準,準則
Rule 3 Word ends in–ate: primary stress falls on the second syllable from-ate
1. A.CU∙le.ate (adj.)【動】有刺的；【植】多刺的；(語言等)尖銳的
2. ac∙CEN∙tu∙ate (vt.)以重音讀出;加重音符號於,強調;使更突出
3. al∙LE∙vi∙ate (vt.)減輕；緩和
4. an∙NUN∙ci∙ate (vt.)告示
5. ap∙PRE∙ci∙ate (vt.) 欣賞, 感謝領會，察知,正確地評價(vi.) (土地，貨幣等)
增值
6. as∙SO∙ci∙ate (vt.) 聯想,把...聯想在一起,使聯合,使結合,(vi.) 結交,交往
7. ca∙LUM∙ni∙ate (vt.) 誹謗
8. COCH∙le∙ate (adj.)【動】螺形的,具有螺類貝殼形狀的
9. col∙LE∙gi∙ate (adj.) 大學生的,大學的
10. con∙CIL∙i∙ate (vt.)把……爭取過來；安撫, 博得(尊敬、好感等),使和好；
調解
11. cont∙IN∙u∙ate (adj.)【廢】繼續的
12. de∙LIN∙e∙ate (vt.) 畫...的輪廓,描述
13. de∙NUN∙ci∙ate (vt. )指責，聲討, 揭發, 通知廢止(條約)
14. de∙PRE∙ci∙ate (vt.)降低……的價值(或價格)；使貶值,輕視(vi.)降價，跌價，
貶值
15. e∙BRAC∙te∙ate (adj.)【植】無苞的
16. e∙MA∙ci∙ate (vt.)使衰弱,使消瘦,使憔悴(vi.) 消瘦下去
17. e∙NU∙cle∙ate (vt.)【古】解釋；【醫】摘出(腫瘤等)；【生】除去細胞核
18. e∙NUN∙ci∙ate (vt.) 清晰地發(音) ,發表;宣佈(vi.)清晰地發音
19. e∙VAC∙u∙ate (vt.)撤空，撤離；從……撤退, 使避難，使疏散
20. e∙VAL∙u∙ate (vt.)估...的價,對...評價;為...鑑定,【數】求...的數值
Rule 4 Words end in –mo·ny: primary stress falls on the first syllable of the
words
1. AC·ri·mo·ny (n.) (言語、態度等的)尖刻;厲害;辛辣;激烈
2. AG·ri·mo·ny (n.) 龍芽草屬;龍芽草
3. AL·i·mo·ny (n.)【律】贍養費;生活費;扶養費
4. AN·ti·mo·ny (n.)【化】銻
5. CER·e·mo·ny (n.)儀式,典禮,禮儀,禮節;(社交上的)形式,虛禮,客套
6. HAR·mo·ny (n.)和睦;融洽;一致,和諧;協調;調和,【語】和聲;和聲學
7. HE·gem·o·ny (n.)霸權;領導權

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 155 Chinese Studies

L. W. Liu

8. MAT·ri·mo·ny (n.)婚姻;夫婦關係;婚姻生活
9. PAR·si·mo·ny (n.)吝嗇;過於儉省
10. PAT·ri·mo·ny (n.)繼承的遺產;祖產,教會的財產,繼承之事物(如特徵等)
11. SANC·ti·mony (n.)假裝的虔誠
12. SCAM·mo·ny (n.)旋花科植物;野牽牛花屬植物 旋花科植物樹脂
13. SI·mo·ny (n.)買賣聖職;買賣聖職罪
14. TES·ti·mo·ny (n.)【律】證詞,證言,(信仰等的)聲明,(基督教的)摩西十誡

DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013 156 Chinese Studies