7

Curriculum position: conforming to society

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Overview

Key thinker Definition

Ralph Tyler (1949– ), USA education- Conforming: complying with the existing
alist. practices, rules, traditions and under-
standings (for example, education that
complies with the existing social prac-
tices, rules, traditions and understand-
ings of a given society and, to that extent,
governs the individual).

Teaching is a cultural task and our business is to gear these natural curiosities and
interests to the traditional skills which the culture has built up and valued.
(Brearley 1970, in Read et al. 1993: 286)

This chapter focuses on how people working within a ‘conforming to society’ position
on early childhood curriculum have answered the question, ‘What is early child-
hood education for?’ and, given that, ‘How should we build and assess early childhood
curriculum?’
A ‘conforming to society’ position on the role of education in society rests on the
belief that education can and should achieve national social goals and that govern-
ments define the roles and purposes within education in order to ensure that
core national goals and values are maintained in and through education. From this
perspective, education can:
Copyright 2003. Open University Press.

• reproduce the skills needed to achieve national economic, social and political
goals;
• reproduce the understandings and values that enable society to reproduce itself
(Feinberg 1983).

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 122 POSITIONS ON THE CURRICULUM

Those ideas are present in weaker or stronger expression in several countries’

intentions for their early childhood programmes. Ideas gallery 7.1 lists just some of these
expressions.

Ideas gallery 7.1

From Nigeria
‘The federal government views pre-primary education (ages 3–5) as the pro-
vision of adequate care and supervision; inculcation of social norms; inculca-
tion of the spirit of enquiry and of creativity through active exploration
of the environment; play; cooperation; good health habits; and the teaching of
numbers, letters, colours, shapes and forms through play.’ (Rufai 1996: 31)

From Kenya
‘Early childhood is traditionally seen as a stage of life when children slowly
learn oral traditions, way of life, and customs. This is the stage when oral
traditions are told to the new generation, describing every bit of the past.’
(Lanyasunya and Lesolayia 2001: 10)

From Korea
‘The primary purpose to educate a child in the traditional society was to make
him a person who would provide filial loyalty to parents and ancestors.
Currently, the primary purpose in educating a child is to prepare him to adapt
to society as an independent and responsible person.’ (Lee 1997: 49)

From Australia
‘Early childhood development and experiences affect educational outcomes;
career prospects; health outcomes; avoiding reliance on welfare, substance
misuse and becoming entangled in the criminal justice system.
These outcomes are significant to all individuals, their families and com-
munities. If we can give our children a better start, we all stand to benefit.’
(Anthony 2002: 1)

Where have the ideas come from: a brief history lesson

Social reproduction and utility
Within a ‘conforming to society’ position on early education’s role, the key idea is that
it should be useful to society and meet its needs. Early education should prepare the
child for the adult world so that the child can adjust and contribute appropriately to
that world. Early education can teach the child about their society and about what that
society and its educators decide is of most value or use.
Early childhood education’s social utility has been linked to two areas. First, it can
effectively prepare children for school, thus giving them a ‘head start’, ‘early start’ or
‘best start’ in their schooling. Second, it can prevent crime and deviance in later life.
This is illustrated clearly in the following government report:

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 CONFORMING TO SOCIETY 123

Because of the long-lasting effects, early investments can have big payoffs.
They avert the need for more costly interventions later in life, and so con-
tribute to happier, healthier, and more productive children, adolescents, and
adults.
(Report of the Council of Economic Advisors 1997, in Fleer 2002: 2)

Social utility arguments about early childhood education have become remark-
ably commonplace and significant research resources have been deployed to prove
the social worth of early education. Much of this research has emphasized early
education’s role in preventing deviant behaviour – especially crime. There have been
several ‘waves’ of such research but the general thrust is similar: if we want normal
adults who can conform to existing social mores and expectations, then early
childhood education can help.
Most recently, research from within neuroscience, known more commonly as the
‘brain research’ (Lindsey 1998; Joseph 1999; Chapter 3), has been used to demon-
strate the importance of the early years in young children’s learning and the relevance
of this learning for their later life chances. Ideas gallery 7.2 provides a snapshot of
some of the present-day international research that highlights the prevalence of social
utility arguments in the field.

Ideas gallery 7.2 Why early childhood services matter: some twentieth- and
twenty-first-century thinking on the place of cultural transmission in early
childhood education.
‘Child-initiated programs have long term benefits including improving
children’s capacity to work independently of adults.’ (Weikart 1995/96)

Developmentally appropriate programs in the USA are associated with

positive social and academic outcomes for young children (Hoot et al. 1999).

Research from the UK indicates that policy expectations about what children
should know at key phases in middle schooling influenced what is taught in
early childhood programs (Sylva et al. 1992; Evans 1996).

‘Girls enrolled in early childhood programs are better prepared for school and
remain in school longer.’ (World Bank Group 2002)

The broad philosophy: cultural transmission

The ‘conforming to society’ position on curriculum has its roots in cultural trans-
mission theories of education’s role in society, which are linked strongly with the rise
of the modern industrial state. Kemmis explained:

in the late nineteenth century educational theorising became more specific and
more detailed in its prescriptions for teachers and schools as it was harnessed to
the needs of the modern industrial state . . . one group of emerging curriculum

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 124 POSITIONS ON THE CURRICULUM

theories began to take for granted that the role of schooling was to produce a
qualified labor force and to achieve the reproduction of society.
(Kemmis 1986: 36)

The best way to ensure that society can reproduce itself is to shape children by
deliberately and effectively transmitting desired social values and knowledge to them
through their education:

Rather than viewing curriculum as an opportunity to develop mental discipline,

as ‘windows of the soul’, or as organised around the needs, interests, and abilities
of the child, curriculum became the assembly line by which economically and
socially useful citizens would be produced. Social utility . . . became the sole value
by which curriculum would be judged.
(Pinar et al. 1995: 95)

The role of scientific thinking and being rational

Scientific thinking – in the form of behaviourist (Chapter 2) understandings of
learning – offers educators a ready source of knowledge about how to shape
behaviour effectively and efficiently. As will be seen shortly, this knowledge entered
the education system through what have become known as technical approaches
to curriculum. These approaches offer formulae for teaching and for curriculum
design that promise certainty in transmitting knowledge and values to children. Such
rationality was believed to be essential to decisions about curriculum, as Giroux
explained:

this form of rationality has evolved in a manner parallel to the scientific manage-
ment movement of the 1920s, and (that) early founders of the curriculum move-
ment such as Bobbitt and Charters warmly embraced the principles of scientific
management. The school as factory metaphor has a long and extensive history in
the curricula field. Consequently, modes of reasoning, inquiry, and research
characteristics of the field have been modelled on assumptions drawn from a
model of science and social relations closely tied to the principles of prediction
and control.
(Giroux 1988: 12)

Drawing on behaviourist principles of human learning and motivation (Chapter

2) and on scientific management theory, scientific approaches to schooling seemed to
offer the hope of building a more modern, efficient and effective workforce. Franklin
Bobbitt, a US professor of educational administration in the early 1900s, took a
leading role in this development. According to Longstreet and Shane (1993) he
was ‘in the forefront of the drive to have public education improve its efficiency by
following the example of industry and indicating clearly what its “products” were to
be’ (p.29). He assumed that ‘children need to learn how to fit into society and that the
schools are the proper socialising agents’ (p.31).

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 CONFORMING TO SOCIETY 125

Implications of cultural transmission for early childhood curriculum:

taking a technical approach
Implicit within cultural transmission theories (and the ‘conforming to society’
positions on curriculum that they underpin) is a commitment to technical curriculum
design and thus clear ideas on the shape and style of early childhood curriculum goals,
plans and assessment. They arise directly from a ‘conforming to society’ model of the
child as a learner (Chapter 2).
Technical approaches to curriculum are based on the assumption that the
ultimate form of social decision making should be rational (based on reason, not
emotion). Rationalists believe that rational decision making is the most effective
and efficient form of decision making. It is effective in that you achieve what you
want. It is efficient because you take the shortest route towards achieving it.
To be rational, decision making should be:

• goal directed;
• a logical, step by step process of reaching one’s goals;
• able to predict its outcomes.

So, rational decision making is a linear, goal directed and incremental process in
which you decide (in this order):

• What do I want to achieve?

• What steps do I need to take to get there?
• Which step should I take first?
• How will I know when I have achieved my goal?

Goals
The core educational aim of a cultural transmission philosophy is the adaptation of
the individual to society. Within early childhood education, this means developing
goals that have direct social utility as defined by the dominant groups within a specific
society.
A ‘conforming to society’ position on early childhood curriculum goals rests on
several assumptions drawn from behaviourist thinking about the child, from cultural
transmission philosophies of education and from technical approaches to curriculum
(discussed above). In overview, these assumptions are that:

• goal development is an unproblematic, essentially technical process;

• goals should have direct social utility;
• goals should be prescribed in advance of meeting the children (generally by
government);
• goals should be prescribed for all children.

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 126 POSITIONS ON THE CURRICULUM

Pinar (cited in Giroux 1988) suggested that between 85 and 95 per cent of
all curricula approach goal development in ways that are closely allied with technical
approaches to curriculum.
Smith and Lovat (1990) identified two main approaches to developing goals in a
technically orientated curriculum:

• the objectives approach;

• the rational approach.

The objectives approach

In the objectives approach to goal development, you specify your goals before you
begin to teach, which assumes that you know what knowledge you wish to pass on to
children prior to meeting them. Your goals should be technical, to ensure that children
learn the desired skills, knowledge and attitudes. The objectives approach also
assumes that there is a logical and obvious relationship between what you intend
to teach and your capacity to find the ‘best’ experience to teach it. This approach to
curriculum goals is most closely associated with standardized curriculum, in other
words, curriculum in which all children are expected to achieve particular (the same)
standards (Scott and Altman 1984: ii).
A behavioural objective is a statement of what behaviour you want the child to
exhibit. There are clear rules to follow when writing behavioural objectives. First, they
should emphasize the behaviour you want from the child, so they should always start
with the phrase, ‘For the child to . . .’ The second rule is that the required behaviour
should be specific and observable, in other words, you must be able to observe it.
Finally, you should, if possible, specify by when the behaviour is to be achieved and
where it is to be achieved. For example:

• For Sally to use her words to explain her feelings when she is upset by other
children;
• For Karia to practise ball-handling skills once each day in the outside play area;
• For Boa to concentrate for at least 5 minutes each day in a pre-reading activity.

The rational approach

The rational approach to developing curriculum goals derives from the work of
educationalists such as Hilda Taba, who believed that a curriculum should repre-
sent a rationale plan for learning and that curriculum development should itself
be rational and orderly. Taba believed ‘that there is a logical and universal order
to the process of curriculum development [in which teachers can] separate the
learning experience from the content of the learning experience’ (Smith and Lovat
1990: 86).
Ideas summary 7.1 provides a snapshot of the goal formulation rules within a
technically oriented early childhood curriculum. It is based on Davies (1977).

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 CONFORMING TO SOCIETY 127

Ideas summary 7.1 A checklist for building conforming early childhood

curriculum goals
Example goals
• For the child to do X (the behaviour) in Y (area of knowledge or developmental
skill) by Z (when or where).
• For the child to use a wide range of expressive language with their peer group in
the next month.
CONTENT DON’T

• emphasizes traditional knowledge

and skills in areas such as literacy,
• avoid describing what you will do as
a teacher;
numeracy and scientific thinking; • be too general.
• values rationality and observable
behaviours;
• specifies time frames.
LANGUAGE DO

• states what you want to achieve in

terms of outcomes for children;
• specify the behaviour to be
achieved by the learner and how
• states what you want to achieve in
terms of observable behaviours.
the learner will demonstrate this
behaviour.

Rational curriculum decision making reflects the influence of scientific manage-

ment theory on education, where schools are likened to factories (Smith and Lovat
1990). Scientific management theory emerged between 1890 and 1930 from the work
of Frederick Taylor and other management theorists, who tried to develop scientific
principles that could determine the best way to perform a given work task and the
best way to select, train and motivate workers. This theory’s focus is on making all
aspects of human resource management rational and efficient. The theory has
had a significant impact on job design, ensuring that jobs are done as efficiently as
possible, taking little account of individual workers’ preferences, needs or capabilities.
The worker should be matched to the job, not vice versa. As Kuhn and Martinko
(1985: 279–80) wrote:

The major emphasis of this theory was on the development of optimal produc-
tion procedures through the controlled and systematic study of work methods.
Once these optimal methods were developed, adherence to the procedures would
be ensured if wages were made contingent upon performance . . . Taylorism has
had, and still does have, a profound influence on practices of human resources
management. Work simplification, time studies, wage incentive programs, and
the assembly line are all direct results of Taylorism . . . As in Taylor’s time, these
practices are not intended to dehumanize workers or to limit their potential to
develop.

Developmental goals in the early childhood curriculum and technical

curriculum
Within a technically orientated early childhood curriculum, goals should be:

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 128 POSITIONS ON THE CURRICULUM

• specified in advance of meeting the children;

• based either on developmental norms for the child or on a set of skills or know-
ledge that the child should know;
• written in behavioural terms so that their achievement can be observed and
evaluated.

Plans
A ‘conforming to society’ position on early childhood curriculum links directly with
a technical approach to curriculum planning, which consists of deciding objectives,
building strategies to achieve them and then assessing the strategies’ success. Pedago-
gies are generally based upon a ‘conforming to culture’ (behaviourist) model of the
child as a learner (Chapter 2). In general, planning is a rational process in which:

• time is often segmented and tightly organized, with its use and flow controlled by
the educator;
• people (educators teach) specific skills and knowledge to children;
• space is tightly structured by the educator to ensure that the objectives can be
achieved;
• learning resources are generally tightly geared towards learning that is associated
with specific objectives;
• knowledge is generally pre-packaged and organized in ways (for example, themes
or subject areas) that make sense to educators.

Shaping the planning process

Planning decisions are generally ‘top-down’ ways for the educator to answer these
questions:

• What do I want to achieve?

• What steps do I need to take to get there?
• Which step should I take first?
• How will I know when I have achieved my goal?

The educator then uses these decisions to map:

• the content of what is to be learnt;

• the use of space and materials;
• the use of time;
• the educator’s role in the curriculum.

The educator will plan a set of long-term objectives and each week will include
a series of short-term objectives to assist in achieving the long-term ones. This plan
will be for the whole group but it will include room for individual objectives for
individual children to be achieved. For instance, see Figure 7.1.

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 CONFORMING TO SOCIETY 129

Figure 7.1 Planning for individual children using an objectives-based approach

Shaping the content

Those who take a ‘conforming to society’ position see curriculum content as either
vocationally orientated or neoclassical (Kemmis 1986). Vocationally orientated
curriculum emphasizes learning skills and knowledge that will lead to success in
the workplace. Reid identifies such an emphasis in the current Australian national
education agenda:

In broad terms, however, both major political parties have constructed the pri-
mary role of education as being one of ‘value-adding’ to students, and supplying
the labour market with a ready-made stream of workers who have the requisite
job skills and positive attitudes to work.
(Reid 1999: 4)

Neoclassical curriculum emphasizes learning what is considered to be the most

valued and significant knowledge of the ‘Western’ world. For instance: ‘Curriculum
should consist of permanent studies – grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic, mathematics
and the greatest books of the Western world’ (Smith and Lovat 1990: 3–4).

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 130 POSITIONS ON THE CURRICULUM

Traditional knowledge is the knowledge that has been organized into specific
disciplines or fields of inquiry. Often these disciplines or fields of inquiry are used
to build school curricula. Jerome Bruner, among others, believes that traditional
disciplines or fields of study provide a good basis for curriculum development,
because they offer a way for all children to learn what their society considers to be
‘intellectually significant’ (Spodek and Saracho 1994: 99). This idea has influenced
a number of early childhood educators who believe that young children should be
introduced to knowledge from key fields of inquiry of the Western world, including:

• science;
• the arts (for example, literature, music, drama, painting and collage);
• mathematics.

Content is generally prepared by the educator and shaped into clear and distinct
units or segments for learning. This generally results in content being planned as:

• units linking ideas and concepts that the teacher believes the child needs to learn;
• a calendar curriculum (Spodek 2002) where content is themed and linked to
specific months or times of the year (for example, welcome to the centre, Easter,
Spring, Xmas);
• subjects, with an emphasis on children learning specific types of knowledge.

Wah (1992) provides an example of how a unit of study can be structured and
segmented into specific topics and objectives for the learner (see Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2 Sample of a unit of study

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