Hydrocarbon Classification

• There is a large number of hydrocarbon compounds with molecules

composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and carbon in various
proportions. Hydrocarbons will exist in a fluid phase (gas or liquid) or as
solids in a reservoir, depending upon changes in temperature or
pressure.
• Fluid hydrocarbons or petroleum are normally produced through wells
and are subdivided into liquid hydrocarbons and natural hydrocarbon
gases.

The recommended classification and terminology of the fluid hydrocarbons

Liquid hydrocarbons are subdivided into the following categories:

 Crude Oil: "a mixture of hydrocarbons that exists in the liquid phase
in natural underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric
pressure after passing through surface separating facilities.
 " Natural Gas Liquids: "those portions of reservoir gas that are
liquefied at the surface in lease separators, field facilities, or gas
processing plants. Natural gas liquids include but are not limited to
ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, natural gasoline, and
 condensate.
 " Natural Gas: "a mixture of hydrocarbons and varying quantities of
nonhydrocarbons that exists either in the gaseous phase or in
solution with crude oil in natural underground reservoirs."
 Natural gas is subdivided into the following categories:
- Nonassociated Gas: natural gas that is in reservoirs that do not
contain significant quantities of crude oil.
- Associated Gas: natural gas, commonly known as gas-cap gas,
which overlies and is in contact with crude oil in the reservoir
(including dissolved gas).
- Dissolved Gas: natural gas in solution with crude oil in the reservoir.
- Injected Gas: gaseous hydrocarbons that have been injected in
underground reservoirs for pressure maintenance or storage
purposes.

Crude Oil Characteristics.

 As rule crude oils categorized according to the API gravity and

weight percent of sulfur content in the crude.
 The sulfur imparts undesirable odor to refined products and also
increases their corrosiveness. If crude oil contains less than
0.5% sulfur a crude oil is classified as “sweet” and in case of a
greater amount as a “sour”.
 The formula to obtain API gravity of petroleum liquids, from
specific gravity (SG), is:
API gravity = 141.5/SG-131.5
where SGoil = Doil/Dh2o
 API gravity has no units. At the same time API gravity is gradated
in degrees on a hydrometer instrument. The API scale was
designed so that most values would fall between 10 and 70 API
gravity degrees.
 Oil with an API gravity between 40 and 45 commands the highest
prices. Above 45 degrees the molecular chains become shorter
and less valuable to refineries.
 Crude Oil is classified according to its API gravity as follows:
Light oil - API gravity higher than 31.1 °API (less than 870 kg/m3)
Medium oil - between 22.3 °API and 31.1 °API (870 to 920 kg/m3)
Heavy oil - below 22.3 °API (920 to 1000 kg/m3)
Extra heavy oil (Bitumen) - below 10.0 °API (greater than 1000 kg/m3)
  Bitumen derived from the oil sands deposits in the Alberta,
Canada area has an API gravity of around 8 °API. It can be
diluted with lighter hydrocarbons to produce diluted bitumen
(lower than 22.3 API), or further "upgraded" to 31 °API to 33
°API as synthetic crude.
 There is range of other parameters such as sediments, water
content, salts, paraffin, vapor pressure, viscosity which
characterized a crude oil.
 To calculate the approximate number of barrels per metric ton for
a given crude oil based on its API gravity (Barrel Factor) can be
used relation as follows
BF= 1/ {141.5/(APIgr +131.5)}/ 0.159
for example, a metric ton of West Texas Intermediate (39.6° API)
would contain about 7.6 barrels.
 To accurate conversion the density should be adjusted depend
on measurement standards and litters in barrel should be
158.987 l.
 BF calculation
1T=1CM/SG*1000/158.987
1T=1CM/SG/0.158987 (bbl)

 There is range of other parameters such as sediments, water content,

salts, paraffin, vapor pressure, viscosity which characterized a crude
oil.
 Many types of crude oil are produced around the world. The market
value of an individual crude stream reflects its quality characteristics.
 The first stage for any refineries focuses on the initial distillation in
which the barrel of crude oil is heated and broken down into
component parts. Each of these cuts has limited boiling point range.
Here is the table of boiling and melting points of hydrocarbons
(alkanes).

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at
atmospheric pressure.

 Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons having only single

covalent bonds between their carbons. They can be:
- linear (general formula CnH2n+2) wherein the carbon atoms are
joined in a snake-like structure
- branched (general formula CnH2n+2, n > 3) wherein the carbon
backbone splits off in one or more directions
- Cyclic (general formula CnH2n, n > 2) wherein the carbon backbone
is linked so as to form a loop.
 The trivial (non-systematic) name for alkanes is paraffins.
Together, alkanes are known as the paraffin series.
 Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes.
 Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in
various different ways, forming structural isomers. The simplest
isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are
arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is
sometimes called the n-isomer (n for "normal", although it is not
necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon
atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number
of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon
atoms.

N-Butane Izobutane
 Butane,  either of two colourless, odourless, gaseous
hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen), members of
the series of paraffinic hydrocarbons. Their chemical formula is
C4H10. The compound in which the carbon atoms are linked in a
straight chain is denoted normal butane, or n-butane; the
branched-chain form is isobutane. Both compounds occur in
natural gas and in crude oil and are formed in large quantities in
the refining of petroleum to produce gasoline.
 The butanes present in natural gas can be separated from the
large quantities of lower-boiling gaseous constituents, such
as methane and ethane, by absorption in a light oil. The butanes
 thus obtained can be stripped from the absorbent along
with propane and marketed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or
they can be separated from the propane and then from each
other by fractional distillation: n-butane boils at -0.5° C (31.1° F);
isobutane boils at -11.7° C (10.9° F).

Oil recovery factor

 The OOIP which initially saturates the porous space of the rock
reservoir is difficult to determine exactly in the beginning (the
exploration phase), when minimal information is available.
 Knowledge of the amount of original oil in place is improved by
volumetric or material balance calculations at the start of
development and during the exploitation of the oil reservoir. However,
cumulative oil production obtained and measured at surface
conditions can be accurately determined.
 If N is the amount of original oil in place (barrels, bbl, of oil) and Pcum
is the cumulative oil produced (bbl) at a given time, the ratio ER =
Pcum x 100/N % is the oil recovery factor at that time or the actual oil
recovery factor.
 The petroleum engineer is mainly interested in knowing from the
beginning the ultimate oil recovery from a reservoir, in other words,
the product N X ERfinal, where ERfinal is the ultimate recovery factor.
 During the early stages when few data are available, but when
important decisions regarding the development of the reservoir must
be made, and during the life of a reservoir the term "recoverable
reserves“ should be estimated with more and more accuracy.
 The oil reserves obtained as a result of EOR methods in addition to
the primary or conventional (secondary) reserves may be expressed
as the percentage of original oil in place (OOIP). To estimate how
much EOR methods can add to oil reserves, the recovery potential of
the reservoir has to be known. This is defined by the reservoir's
characteristics and prior recovery mechanism.
 For instance, the ultimate oil recovery factor of individual reservoirs
under primary and/or conventional recovery methods may range from
5 % of OOIP for the poorest reservoir characteristics or for viscous
oil, to as high as 55 or 60 % of OOIP for the best reservoir
characteristics or for light oil.
 To achieve this requirement the oil reservoirs are classified by
several models according to the average of the ultimate oil recovery
 ERfinal expressed as a percentage of OOIP, possibly attained by the
respective recovery mechanism, as follows:
• 5-10% Tight oil reservoirs, slightly fractured or heavy oil reservoirs
• 10-25% Oil reservoirs produced mainly by solution gas drive
• 25-40% Oil reservoirs producing under partial water drive, gas
injection, or gravity drainage
• 40-55% Oil reservoirs produced by conventional waterflood
 A possible estimation (Carcoana and Aldea, ) of the additional oil
reserves, percentage of OOIP, that could be recovered as the result
of EOR processes is shown in the table.
 These values can be safely used for a quick evaluation of the
improved oil reserves and for the selection of methods that should be
applied.
 However, the selection of a certain process aimed at enhancing oil
recovery must be made only after detailed investigations of the
relevant oil reservoir data (especially residual oil saturation),
laboratory tests, and field pilots.
 Microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiency.
 The ultimate goal of EOR processes is to increase the overall oil
displacement efficiency, which is a function of microscopic and
macroscopic displacement efficiency.
 Microscopic efficiency refers to the displacement or mobilization of oil
at the pore scale and measures the effectiveness of the displacing
fluid in moving the oil at those places in the rock where the displacing
fluid contacts the oil.
 For instance, microscopic efficiency can be increased by reducing
capillary forces or interfacial tension between the displacing fluid and
oil or by decreasing the oil viscosity.
 Macroscopic or volumetric displacement efficiency refers to the
effectiveness of the displacing fluid(s) in contacting the reservoir in a
volumetric sense. Volumetric displacement efficiency also known as
conformance indicates the effectiveness of the displacing fluid in
sweeping out the volume of a reservoir, both areally and vertically, as
well as how effectively the displacing fluid moves the displaced oil
toward production wells.
Schematics of microscopic and macroscopic sweep efficiencies (Lyons & Plisga,
2005)

RECOVERY OF RESIDUAL OIL

 Mobilization of residual oil is influenced by two major factors:
Capillary Number (Nc) and Mobility Ratio (M).
 Capillary Number is defined as Nc = vμ/σ, where v is the
Darcy velocity (m/s), μ is the displacing fluid viscosity (Pa.s) and
σ is the interfacial tension (N/m).
 The most effective and practical way of increasing the Capillary
Number is by reducing σ, which can be done by using a suitable
surfactant or by the application of heat. An approximation of the
effect of Capillary Number on residual oil saturation is shown.
Effect of capillary number on residual oil saturation

 Capillary number at the end of a waterflood is ~10-7. A 50%

reduction in residual oil saturation requires that the Capillary
Number be increased by 3 orders of magnitude.
 Capillary number in a miscible displacement becomes infinite,
and under such conditions, residual oil saturation in the swept
zone can be reduced to zero if the mobility ratio is “favourable”.

 Mobility ratio is defined as M = λing / λed, where λing is the

mobility of the displacing fluid (e.g. water), and λed is the mobility
of the displaced fluid (oil). (λ = k/μ, where k is the effective
permeability, (m2) and μ is the viscosity (Pa.s) of the fluid
concerned).
 Mobility ratio influences the microscopic (pore level) and
macroscopic (areal and vertical sweep) displacement
efficiencies. A value of M > 1 is considered unfavourable,
because it indicates that the displacing fluid flows more readily
than the displaced fluid (oil), and it can cause channelling of the
displacing fluid, and as a result, bypassing of some of the
residual oil.
 Under such conditions, and in the absence of viscous
instabilities, more displacing fluid is needed to obtain a given
residual oil saturation. The effect of mobility ratio on displaceable
oil is shown, the data for which was obtained from calculations
using Buckley-Leverett theory for waterflooding.
  The three curves represent 1, 2 and 3 pore volumes of total fluid
injected, respectively. Displacement efficiency is increased when
M = 1, and is denoted a “favourable” mobility ratio.

Effect of mobility ratio on displaceable oil

INCREMENTAL OIL
 A universal technical measure of the success of an EOR
process is the amount of incremental oil recovered.
 Figure below defines incremental oil. Imagine a field, reservoir,
or well whose oil rate is declining as from A to B. At B, an EOR
project is initiated and, if successful, the rate should show a
deviation from the projected decline at some time after B.
 Incremental oil is the difference between what was actually
recovered, B to D, and what would have been recovered had the
 process not been initiated, B to C. This is the shaded region.

Incremental oil recovery from typical EOR response

 As simple as the concept in Fig. is, EOR is difficult to determine

in practice. There are several reasons for this.
1.Combined production from EOR and non-EOR wells. Such
production makes it difficult to ascribe the EOR-produced oil to the
EOR project. Co-mingling occurs when, as is usually the case, the
EOR project is phased into a field undergoing other types of
recovery.
2. Oil from other sources. Usually the EOR project has experienced
substantial well cleanup or other improvements. The oil produced as
a result of such treatment is not easily differentiated from the EOR
oil.
3. Inaccurate estimate of hypothetical decline. The curve from B to
C in Fig. must be accurately estimated. But since it did not occur,
there is no way of assessing this accuracy.
 Techniques ranging from decline curve analysis to numerical
simulation must still be tempered by good judgment.
Decline curve analysis
 Decline curve analysis is an empirical statistical method of
analyzing production performance. This procedure assumes that
current well and reservoir conditions will remain unchanged in
the future.
 Rate of production goes into decline because of the reservoir
pressure falls (particularly with dissolved gas drives) or water cut
increase (particularly with water drives).
 Some additional measures might be used to increase
productivity. Injection of water or gas into reservoir (secondary
recovery) usually used to compensate reservoir pressure. Any
other increasing production methods, such as injection of
different kind of chemicals, polymers and others known as
tertiary recovery methods.
 All mentioned above with so many physical factors, such as the
oil viscosity, the rock permeability and others may be modeled
mathematically. This is subject of reservoir engineering to
investigate various possible development patterns of reservoir
production (how many wells, where and etc.)
 More usable and reliable from predicting purposes are some
mathematically simple decline curves, which frequently used to
make forecast of production.
 Typical Production Phases for petroleum reservoir are:
Development phase, Plateau and Decline phases.
 Production increases gradually while new wells are drilled and
production capacity built up.
 The production rate then remains stable, with production
equipment being used to full capacity.
 After that production tapers off when the pressure in the
reservoir falls, or as water seeps in and became mixed with the
oil.
 The production history may be plotted as a straight line on semi-
log grid of production rate vs. time (sometimes may be vs.
cumulative production and other pairs). It is exponential decline.
 Exponential function is one of the special cases of a hyperbolic
function
− ( 1/h )
q t =qi [1+(ai ht )]

Where q- production rate, t-time from start of analysis period, h –

h-factor, exponent of hyperbolic decline which characterized a
practical oil well or reservoirs production decline (vary from 0 to
1), a - initial decline rate.
 In case of h=0 which means constant percentage decline we get
exponential function

 Based on that assumption, using initial production rate qi, as well

as assuming the ultimate production and production at
any time t can be calculated.

 In case of some historical period is available, the parameters of

decline curve may be find out by applying of the method of least
squares or errors-in-variables models (trials and errors method).

 Another special case of the Hyperbolic Decline is when h=0.5.

This trend more adequate to wells and fields when early decline
is anticipated but prolonged life is expected (late life flattening).
q t =qi (1+0.5ai t )−2
 The next special case of hyperbolic decline is called harmonic
decline, where h=1.
q t =qi /(1+ai t )

 Because production anywhere will decline to a rate at which it

costs more to produce the hydrocarbons than those
hydrocarbons are worth, the production at that time (economic
limit) must be terminated. To continue production beyond this
point will cause economic loss.